SECONDARY ENGLISH NOTES
FORM ONE
LISTENING AND SPEAKING FOR FORM ONE
PRONUNCIATION
PRONUNCIATION OF VOWEL SOUNDS
In English, we have various vowel sounds. We shall study them one after the other.
Sound /ᵆ/
Consider the letter ‘a’ in the words below. Each says this sound.
- Pan
- Fan
- Ban
- Brash
- Cat
- Pat
- Dad
- Ham
- Mat
- Rash
- Track
- Cram
- Fanned
- Flash
- Pack
- Rag
- Sand
- Slam
- Tag
- Man
Sound /ᶾ˸/
- This sound is more like the sound you make when you are disgusted.
- The letters in boldface say this sound. Study them carefully.
- Bird
- Shirt
- Flirt
- Turn
- Learn
- First
- Berth
- Her
- Heard
- Hurt
- Purse
- Birth
- Cur
- Fur
- Firm
- Herd
- Burn
- Curt
- Pert
- Stir
- Blur
- Shirk
- Surge
Sound /a:/
- It is pronounced by having a much wider open mouth position.
- Inside your mouth is shown in the process of saying this sound.
- Examples of words bearing this sound include:
- Far
- Farm
- Guard
- Heart
- Hard
- Bar
- Bard
- Cart
- Car
- Dart
- Card
- Par
Sound /ə/
- This sound (referred to as schwa) is a short vowel sound.
- It mostly found in words containing letter ‘o’, for example,
- Confuse
- Contemptuous
- Continue
- Condolence
- Also in words such as:
Business
Sound /Ʌ/
Examples of words containing this sound include:
- Sun
- Son
- Some
- Pun
- Fun
- Cum
- Cup
- But
- Much
- Begun
- Fun
- Sung
- Swum
- Bug
- Bunk
- Brush
- Hum
- Rung
- Truck
- Stunned
- Drum
- Dumb
- Fund
Sound /ɔ˸/
- It is a long sound.
- The mouth doesn’t move while saying this sound, and it can be pronounced as long as you have breath.
- It is said in words such as:
- Or
- More
- Chores
- Dorm
- Pork
- Door
- Four
- Fore
- Nor
- Law
- Cord
- Form
- Horn
- Lord
- Saw
- Shore
- Chalk
- Jaw
- Scorn
Sound /ᶛ/
- It is a short sound.
- The mouth doesn’t move.
- Each of the words below bear this sound:
- Got
- On
- Cost
- Lost
- Odd
- Boss
- Stock
- Plot
- Block
- Cock
- Cop
- Mop
- Rod
- Sock
- Shot
- Pot
- Blot
- Crock
- Frog
- Swat
- Swatch
Sound /ᶹ/
bosom
Sound /I:/
- Long sound
- Said in words such as the ones below:
- Sheep
- Feet
- Meat
- Tweet etc.
Sound /ᶦ/
It is a short sound.
In words such as:
- Fit
- Bit
- Quit
- Blip etc.
Exercise
The table below has columns with different sounds. Pronounce each of the words in the list and classify, according to the highlighted letter(s), under the column that bears that sound.
Chip
Jeep
Creek
Wet
Greased
Teal
Hill
Sit
Still
Blip
Fill
Bed
cheat
blink
thrill
jet
/i:/ | /ᶦ/ | /e/ |
PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANT SOUNDS
The sound /ᵗᶴ/
- Made by releasing the stopped air through your teeth by the `tip of your tongue.
- It is voiceless because vocal cords do not vibrate when you say it.
- Most words with letters ‘CH’ say this sound, for example,
Church
Chips
Teach
Pinch
Crunch
Much
- There are those with letters ‘TCH’ for example,
Catch
Watch
Batch
Itch
Kitchen
witch
- Some are with letters ‘TU’, for example,
Century
Spatula
The Sound /ᵈᶾ/
- Pronounced the same way as /ᵗᶴ/. It is just that it is voiced.
- Letters representing this sound include:
- Letters ‘DG’
- Fudge
- Budge
- Bridge
- Judge
- Letter ‘J’
- Judge
- Jump
- Joy
- Joke
- Eject
- July
- Jake
- Project
- Letters ‘DU’
- Procedure
- Graduate
- Individual
- When letter ‘G represents the sound
It does that when it is in front of an ‘e’, ‘i’, or ‘y’
- Letters ‘GE’, for example,
- Agent
- Germ
- Gem
- Budget
- Gel
- Angel
- Danger
- Emergency
- Gentle
- Bilge
- Urgent
- Knowledge
- Large
- Singe
- Enlarge
- Challenge
- Ridge
- Emerge
- Letters ‘GI’, for example,
- Agile
- Allergic
- Apologize
- Contagious
- Gist
- Digitize
- Eligible
- Giraffe
- Engineer
- Fragile
- Fugitive
- Legion
- Original
- Vigilant
- Letters ‘GY’, for example,
- Allergy
- Clergy
- Egypt
- Analogy
- Zoology
- Stingy
- Gym
- Liturgy
- Panegyric
The Sound /f/
- The sound is unvoiced or voiceless.
- Air is stopped by pushing the bottom lip and top teeth together. The air is then pushed through to produce this sound.
- The /f/ sound has the following letters saying it:
- Letter ‘F’
- Four
- Wife
- Knife
- Life
- Family
- Staff
- Puff
- Five
- Letters ‘PH’
- Phone
- Graph
- Paragraph
- Phrase
- Letters ‘GH’
- Cough
- Rough
- Laugh
- Enough
- Tough
- Draught
The Sound /v/
- The same mouth shape as /f/ is formed when pronouncing the sound /v/.
- It is voiced.
- Your top teeth is put on your bottom lip.
- Words bearing this sound include:
- Van
- Vehicle
- Vice
- Unvoiced
- Voice
- Obvious
- Previous
- Drive
- Save
- Jovial
- Virtue
- Care
- Wolves
- Knives
The Sound /d/
- /d/ is voiced. The vocal cords vibrate.
- The low of air is stopped at the front of the mouth by tongue.
- Practice speaking the words below:
- Dad
- Do
- Did
- Dog
- Mad
- Sad
- Bad
- Done
- Loud
- And
Sound /t/
- To make this sound, your tongue stops the flow of air at the front of your mouth.
- It is a voiceless/unvoiced sound.
- It said in words like:
- To
- Top
- Get
- Hot
- Pot
- Butter
- Later
- What
- Today
- Tuesday
The sound /k/
There are various letters that say the sound /k/. let’s study these letters.
- Letter ‘K’ always say this sound. Examples of words include:
- Kill
- Key
- Kick
- Sake
- Kitten
- Keep
- Letter ‘C’, for example,
- Call
- Corn
- Cane
- Campaign
- Camp
- Confusion
- Cucumber
- Colic etc.
- Letters ‘CK’ for example
- Kick
- Mock
- Truck
- Back etc.
- Letter ‘Q’ for example,
- Quack
- Quail
- Quartz
- Quarter
- Quick
- Letters ‘CH’, for example,
- Chaotic
- Character
- Ache
The Sound /g/
Found in words such as:
- Galaxy
- Game
- Gate
- Gibbon
- Give
- Goat
- Gazelle
- Gecko
- Gold
- Gown
- Girl
- Ghost
- Geyser
- Garbage
The Sound /ᶴ/
- This sound is unvoiced – only air passes through the mouth when said.
- The teeth are put together and the corners of the lips are brought together towards the middle.
- Most words with letters ‘sh’ this sound. For example,
Shape
Shop
bishop
- There are words with letters ‘CH’ that say this sound, for example,
Brochure
Cache
Cachet
Chagrin
Champagne
Charade
Chute
Chef
Chiffon
Niche
Ricochet
Charlotte
Chicago
Michigan
Chevrolet
Fuchsia
Cliché
Chivalry
Quiche
chaise
- Some words with ‘SU’ also say it, for example,
Sugar
Surmac
Sure
Issue
Pressure
- There are yet those with letters ‘TIO’, for example,
Nation
Motion
Option
Caution
- Then there are those with letters ‘SIO’, for example,
Submission
Commission
Confession
Sound /ᶿ/
- Pronounced with your tongue between your teeth.
- It is unvoiced.
- The words bearing this sound include:
- Mouth
- Thing
- Faith
- Fourth
- Thick
- Think
- Three
- Thought
- Tenth
- Math
- Myth
- Thumb
- Youth
- Thrive
- Growth
- North
- Truth
- Pith
- Thank
- Thorn
- Thimble
- Three
- Theme
- Therapist
- Thigh
- Thickness
Sound /ᶞ/
- Unlike /ᶿ/, it is voiced.
- It also pronounced with tongue touching or between your teeth.
- It is found in such words as:
- With
- There
- Clothing
- These
- Thence
- Then
- Their
- they
Sound /s/
- This is a hissing sound like a snake.
- It is voiceless.
- The few rules for some of the common spellings that say the sound /s/ are:
- Letter ‘S’, for example,
Sit
Wise
Dogs
Say
Sad
Sound
Boss
This
Lips
Misty
Sunday
- Letter ‘SC’, for example,
Muscle
Descend
Science
Scream
- Letter ‘X’, for example,
Fix
Fox
Next
Mix
- Letter ‘C’, for example,
Face
Practice
City
Circle
Fence
License
Sound /z/
- The /z/ is like the sound of buzzing bees.
- It is voiced.
- Most words with the letter ‘Z’ say /z/, for example,
- Zoo
- Zip
- Zebra
- Quiz
- Buzz
- Freeze
- Doze
- prize
- There are those words with letter ‘S’ saying this sound, for example,
- Is
- Was
- His
- Hers
- Nose
- Noise
- Noises
- Rose
- Roses
- Frogs
- Girls
- Friends
- Lies
- Busy
- Tuesday
- Wednesday
- Sounds
- Pose
- Reason
- Rise
- Eyes
- These
- Days
- Says
- Ties
- Has
- Flows
- Because
- Shoes
- Visit
- Those
- Bananas
- cows
- The other group of words are those with letter ‘X’, for example,
Exist, anxiety
Sound /ᵌ/
- Words bearing this sound are borrowed from French.
- Pronounced in the same way as /ᶴ/ only that is voiced.
- The examples of words with this sound are:
Garage
Beige
Massage
Sabotage
Genre
Measure
Treasure
Closure
Seizure
Leisure
Persian
Conclusion
Casual
Casually
Usual
Usually
Amnesia
Collision
Division
Version
Television
Exposure
Occasion
Persuasion
Cashmere
Asia
Visual
Vision
Lesion
Decision
Caucasian
Practice in sentences
- Measure the beige door on the garage.
- It was my decision to fly to Asia to seek treisure.
Sound /r/
- Raise the back of your tongue to slightly touch the back teeth on both sides of your mouth. The centre part of the tongue remains lower to allow air to move over it.
- It is voiced.
- It is found in words with letter ‘R’ e.g.
- Red
- Friday
- Worry
- Sorry
- Marry
- It is also said in words with letters ‘WR’ e.g.
- Write
- Wrong
- Wrath
- Wry
- Wring
Sound /w/
- Your lips form a small, tight circle when making the sound /w/.
- Letters representing the /w/ sound are:
- Letter ‘W’
Woman
Wife
New
Sweet
Win
Rewind
Towel
Wait
- Letters WH
Why
Where
When
While
What
White
Whom
Who
Whole
- Letters ‘QU’
Quit
Quick
Quite
Quiet
Queer
Queen
Quota
Quickly
- Others
One
Choir
Sound /m/
- Made by pressing the lips lightly.
- The words that follow contain the sound:
- Mum
- Mine
- Me
- Morning
- Farmer
- Shame
- Meat
- Myself
Exercise 1
Read the sentence below pronouncing each word correctly and then group the words in their appropriate columns. Consider the highlighted letters.
The seven students took the first test for their driver’s licenceson Thursday.
/s/ | /z/ |
Exercise 2
Considering the pronunciation of highlighted letters, pick the odd word out.
- Judge, gesture, garage
- Jump, gift, geological
- Fungi, just, go
- Digit, game, gamble
- Hygiene, prodigy, entangle
- Gecko, gem, zoology
Exercise 3
Pronounce each word correctly and then group it under the column containing the sound that the highlighted letter(s) bear.
Tissue
Caucasian
Division
Passion
Ocean
Cautious
Leisure
Solution
Pressure
Vision
Persian
Casual
Chef
Conclusion
Television
Decision
Collision
Sure
Precious
Exposure
/ᶴ/ | /ᶾ/ |
Exercise 4
Circle the letter(s) that say /f/ and underline those saying /v/ in the sentences below.
- Please forgive me for forgetting the leftover food.
- Save the four wolves that live in the cave.
DIPHTHONGS
- A diphthong is a combination of two vowel sounds.
- Some of the diphthongs include:
- /ᵊᶹ/
- /ᵃᶸ/
- /ᵉᶦ/
/ᵊᶹ/
In words like;
- Role
- Bone
- Phone
- Stone
- Close
- Note
- Notice
- Lonely
- Home
- Hope
- Open
- Ocean
- Remote
- Solar
- Polar
- Modal
- Total
- Motor
- Moment
- Bonus
- Focus
- Vogue
- Social
- Soldier
- Coworker
- Most
- Post
- Host
- Ghost
- Both
- Low
- Know
- Mow
- Sow
- Show
- Tow
- Owe
- Own
- Bowl
- Blow
- Grown
- Throw
- Go
- Ago
- No
- So
- Toe
- Hero
- Zero
- Veto
- Ego
- Echo
- Radio
- Studio
- Mexico
- Potato
- Tomato
- Logo
- Motto
- Cold
- Gold
- Bold
- Sold
- Told
- Roll
- Poll
- Control
- Bolt
- Colt
- Folk
- Comb
- Won’t
- Don’t
- Soul
- Shoulder
- Road
- Load
- Boat
- Coast
- Coat
- Oak
- Soak
- Approach
- Boast
- Ok
- Obey
- Omit
- Hotel
- Motel
/ᵃᶸ/
Said in words such as:
- How
- Cow
- Now
- Allow
- Owl
- Brown
- Down
- Town
- Clown
- Drown
- Crown
- Crowd
- Powder
- Browse
- Loud
- Proud
- Cloud
- Out
- Shout
- About
- Doubt
- Foul
- Noun
- House
- Mouse
- Mouth
- South
- Couch
- Found
- Ground
- Around
- Pound
- Sound
- Count
- Amount
- Mountain
- Announce
- Bounce
- Allowing
- Towel
- Bowel
- Power
- Tower
- Flower
- Shower
- Hour
- Our
- Sour
- Flour
- coward
/ᵉᶦ/
The words containing this diphthong are:
- wait
- late
- bait
- date
- tale
- bail
- bale
- sale
- gate
- waste
- wade
- baby
- bacon
- paper
- April
- Danger
- Angel
- Stranger
- Basis
- Lazy
- Crazy
- Fail
- Sail
- Rail
- Raise
- Raid
- Afraid
- Wait
- Straight
- Faint
- Paint
- Fate
- Rate
- Kate
- Race
- Base
- Place
- Lake
- Take
- Name
- Ache
- Rage
- Patient
- Racial
- Nation
- Nature
- Fatal
- Patriot
- Radio
- Vacant
- Weight
- Eight
- Vein
- Neighbour
- Break
- Steak
- Age
- Wage
- Save
- Cave
- Wave
- Ray
- Gray
- Play
- Lay
- Day
- May
- Pray
- Convey
- Survey
- Stain
- Change etc.
Exercise
Write another word pronounced the same way as:
- Gait
- Made
- Pale
- Pain
- Plain
- Sale
- Tale
- Vain
- Waist
- Wait
- Eight
- Sew
- No
- Toe
- Grown
MINIMAL PAIRS
Study the pairs of words below carefully.
Fit – feet
Let – late
Van – fan
Pun – pan
- What do you notice? You realize that only one sound makes the pronunciation of one word distinct from the other. Each pair is called a minimal pair.
- A minimal pair is therefore a pair of words that vary by only one sound especially those that usually confuse learners, such as /l/ and /r/, /b/ and /p/, and many others.
Minimal Pairs of Vowel Sounds
Sound /i/ and /i:/
- Bid – bead
- Bit – beat
- Bitch – beach
- Bin – bean/ been
- Chip – cheap
- Fit – feat/ feet
- Fist – feast
- Fizz – fees
- Gin – gene
- Sin – seen/ scene
- Still – steal/ steel
- Sick – seek
- Is – ease
- Itch – each
- Risen – reason
- Piss – piece/ peace
- Pick – peak/ peek
- Mill – meal
Exercise
Write another word in which either sound /i/ and /i:/ will make it vary from the one given.
- Hit
- Sheet
- Tin
- Peach
- Lip
- Neat
- Kip
- Eel
- Greed
- Pill
- Skied
- Skim
Sounds /i/ and /e/
- Did – dead
- Disk – desk
- Built – belt
- Bit – bet
- Lipped – leapt
- Middle – meddle
- Fill – fell
- Bid – bed
- Bill – bell
- Lit – let
- List – lest
- Clinch – clench
Exercise
Complete the table below with a word in which either the sound /e/ or /i/ brings the difference in pronunciation.
/e/ | /i/ | |
1 | Head | |
2 | Miss | |
3 | Hymn | |
4 | Led | |
5 | Fen | |
6 | Lid | |
7 | Den | |
8 | Peg |
Sounds /e/ and /ei/
The following words vary by one having the vowel sound /e/ and the other a diphthong /ei/
- Wet – wait
- Bread – braid
- Fen – feign
- Bed – bade
- Get – gate/ gait
- Let – late
- Met – mate
- Lest – laced
- Tech – take
- West – waste/ waist
- When – wane
- Edge – age
- Gel – jail
- Lens – lanes
- Breast – braced
- Sent – saint
- Test – taste
- Best – based
- Wren – rain/ reign
- Led – laid
- Bled – blade
- Fed – fade
Exercise
Each word below has another word in which either the sound /e/ or /ei/ will bring the distinction in pronunciation. Write that word.
- Fell
- Pain
- Hail
- Sell
- Well
- Mate
- Raid
- Date
- Men
- Stayed
- Bet
- Jail
Sounds /ᵆ/ and /ᶺ/
- Batter – butter
- Cap – cup
- Cat – cut
- Back – buck
- Brash – brush
- Dabble – double
- Rang – rung
- Track – truck
- Bad – bud
- Began – begun
- Bag – bug
- Pan – pun
- Drank – drunk
- Fan – fun
- Hat – hut
- Badge – budge
- Hang – hung
- Massed – must
- Rash – rush
- Sank – sunk
- Ran – run
- Swam – swum
- Ban – bun
- Ham – hum
Exercise
Complete the table below with the minimal pair of the word. Consider the sound indicated in each column.
/ᵆ/ | /ᶺ/ | |
(a) | But | |
(b) | Match | |
(c) | Mad | |
(d) | Flush | |
(e) | Cam | |
(f) | Dumb | |
(g) | Sang | |
(h) | Uncle | |
(i) | Crash | |
(j) | Sack | |
(k) | Dump | |
(l) | Tug |
Sounds /ᵆ/ and /e/
look at the list below.
- Bad – bed
- And – end
- Had – head
- Jam – gem
- Pat – pet
- Sat – set
- Shall – shell
- Man –men
- Bag – beg
- Ham – hem
- Pan – pen
- Sad – said
- Manned – mend
- Land – lend
Exercise
Complete the table with appropriate word that vary with the sound indicated in the column.
/ᵆ/ | /ᵉ/ | |
(a) | Marry | |
(b) | Blend | |
(c) | Cattle | |
(d) | Vat | |
(e) | Sacks | |
(f) | Trek | |
(g) | Trad | |
(h) | met |
Minimal Pairs of /ɑ˸/ and /ᵌ˸/
- fast – first
- bath – berth/birth
- heart – hurt
- bard – bird
- car – cur
- card – curd
- guard – gird
- pa – per
- bar – bur
- barn – burn
- carve – curve
- dart – dirt
- par – purr
- park – perk
- star – stir
- arc – irk
Exercise 6
Considering the sounds /ɑ˸/ and /ᵌ˸/, write the minimal pair of:
- far
- heard/herd
- pass
- farm
- shark
- curt
Minimal Pairs of /b/ and /v/
- bat – vat
- beer – veer
- bowl – vole
- bow – vow
- gibbon – given
- bale – veil
- bane – vein
- curb – curve
- bolt – volt
- bowl – vole
- broom – vroom
- dribble – drivel
- dub – dove
- jibe – jive
- rebel – revel
Exercise 7
There is another word that will vary with the one written below with just one sound. Depending on the sounds /b/ and /v/, write that word.
- van
- boat
- Vest
- Vowels
- Vent
- Bury
- Loaves
- Verve
Minimal pairs of /f/ and /v/
- Fan – van
- Off – of
- Fat – vat
- Fee – v
- Foul – vowel
- Fender – vendor
- Serf/Surf – serve
- Duff – dove
- Fie – vie
- Foal – vole
- Guff – guv
- Waif – waive
- Gif – give
- Life – live
- Safe – save
- Belief – believe
- Feel – veal
- Staff – starve
- Feign – vain/ vein
- Foist – voiced
- Fox – vox
- Reef – reeve
Exercise 8
Write the minimal pair of the word below with consideration being either the sound /f/ or /v/.
- Ferry
- Leaf
- Vast
- Fine
- Half
- Proof
- Veil
- Grief
- Calf
- Fault
- Vile
- Strive
Minimal Pairs of Sounds/s/ and /ᶿ/
- Mouse – mouth
- Sing – thing
- Face – faith
- Force – fourth
- Sick – thick
- Sink – think
- Sort – thought
- Tense – tenth
- Mass – math
- Miss – myth
- Pass – path
- Saw – thaw
- Seem – theme
- Some – thumb
- Song – thong
- Worse – worth
- Gross – growth
- Sigh – thigh
- Sin – thin
- Sum – thumb
- Piss – pith
- Sawn – thorn
- Symbol – thimble
- Sore – thaw
- Truce – truth
- Suds – thuds
- Sought – thought
- Moss – moth
- Sank – thank
- Sump – thump
Sounds /t/ and /d/
- Town – down
- Touch – Dutch
- Tear – dare
- Ten – den
- Tongue – dung
- Tart – dart
- Tech – deck
- Tin – din
- Toe – doe
- Tough – duff
- Tuck – duck
- Tab – dab
- Tank – dank
- Tick – dick
- Tine – dine
- Hat – had
- Spent – spend
- Too/ to/two – do
- Train – drain
- Tide – dyed/died
- Torn – dawn
- Teal – deal
- Teen – dean
- Tyre/tire – dire
- Toes – doze
- Tout – doubt
- Tug – dug
- Tale/ tail – dale
- Teed – deed
- Tier – deer
- Tint – dint
- Sheet – she’d
- Wait – weighed
- Tie – die
- Try – dry
- Tear – dear
- Tip – dip
- Tame – dame
- Team – deem
- Tent – dent
- Toast – dosed
- Tomb – doom
- Tower – dour
- Tux – ducks
- Tamp – damp
- Tell – dell
- Till – dill
- Tusk – dusk
- Sight – side
- Beat – bead
Exercise 9
Each word below has another word in which all the sounds are the same except either the sound /t/ or /d/ is different. Write that word.
- Bat
- God
- Write
- And
- At
- Bed
- Bored
- Eight
- Bet
- Feet
- Hit
- Hurt
- Mat
- Mend
- Neat
- Nod
- Set
- Played
- Sat
- Dead
Minimal Pairs of /k/ and /g/
Initial
- Came – game
- Card – guard
- Cold – gold
- Clean – glean
- Crate – great
- Cap – gap
- Coast – ghost
- Kale – gale
- Can – gone
- Course – gorse
- Cram – gram
- Crepe – grape
- Crew – grew
- Croup – group
- Crow – grow
- Key – ghee
- K – gay
- Clamour – glamour
- Clad – glad
- Crane – grain
- Creed – greed
- Krill – grill
- Cunning – gunning
- Cab – gab
- Cape – gape
- Clam – glam
- Cord – gored
- Coup – goo
- Crate – grate
- Cuff – guff
Final
- Clock – clog
- Dock – dog
- Frock – frog
- Muck – mug
- Brick – brig
- Broke – brogue
- Crack – crag
- Prick – prig
- Puck – pug
- Shack – shag
- Slack – slag
- Snuck – snug
- Stack – stag
- Whack – wag
- Wick – wig
- Jock – jog
- Lack – lag
- Luck – lug
- Beck – beg
- Cock – cog
- Hack – hag
- Pick – pig
Exercise 10
Complete the table with appropriate word that only differs with one sound with the one given. Consider the sounds in the columns.
/k/ | /g/ | |
(a) | Tack | |
(b) | Flog | |
(c) | Tuck | |
(d) | Gum | |
(e) | Gash | |
(f) | Jack | |
(g) | Cave | |
(h) | Sag | |
(i) | Leak | |
(j) | Crab | |
(k) | Class | |
(l) | Good | |
(m) | Goat | |
(n) | Blog | |
(o) | Kill | |
(p) | Dug | |
(q) | Gut | |
(r) | Log | |
(s) | Rack | |
(t) | Cot |
HOMOPHONES
Words pronounced the same way but have different spellings and meanings are the homophones. The list below is English homophones.
- Accessary accessory
- Ad, add
- Ail, ale
- Air, heir
- Aisle, I’ll, isle
- All, awl
- Allowed, aloud
- Alms, arms
- Altar, alter
- Ante, anti
- Arc, ark
- Aural, oral
- Away, aweigh
- Awe, oar, or, ore
- Axel, axle
- Aye, eye, I
- Bail, bale
- Bait, bate
- Baize, bays
- Bald, bawled
- Ball, bawl
- Band, banned
- Bard, barred
- Bare, bear
- Bark, barque
- Baron, barren
- Base, bass
- Bay, bey
- Bazaar, bizarre
- Be, bee
- Beach, beech
- Bean, been
- Beat, beet
- Beau, bow
- Beer, bier
- Bell, belle
- Berry, bury
- Berth, birth
- Bight, bite, byte
- Billed, build
- Bitten, bittern
- Blew, blue
- Bloc, block
- Boar, bore
- Board, bored
- Boarder, border
- Bold, bawled
- Boos, booze
- Born, borne
- Bough, bow
- Boy, buoy
- Brae, bray
- Braid, brayed
- Braise, brays, braze
- Brake, break
- Bread, bred
- Brews, bruise
- Bridal, bridle
- Broach, brooch
- Bur, burr
- But, butt
- Buy, by, bye
- Buyer, byre
- Call, caul
- Canvas, canvass
- Cast, caste
- Caster, castor
- Caught, court
- Caw, core, corps
- Cede, seed
- Ceiling, sealing
- Censer, censor, sensor
- Cent, scent, sent
- Cereal, serial
- Cheap, cheep
- Check, cheque
- Choir, quire
- Chord, cord
- Cite, sight, site
- Clack, claque
- Clew, clue
- Climb, clime
- Close, cloze
- Coarse, course
- Coign, coin
- Colonel, kernel
- Complacent, complaisant
- Complement, compliment
- Coo, coup
- Cops, copse
- Council, counsel
- Cousin, cozen
- Creak, creek
- Crews, cruise
- Cue, queue
- Curb, kerb
- Currant, current
- Cymbol, symbol
- Dam, damn
- Days, daze
- Dear, deer
- Descent, dissent
- Desert, dessert
- Deviser, divisor
- Dew, due
- Die, dye
- Discreet, discrete
- Doe, dough
- Done, dun
- Douse, dowse
- Draft, draught
- Dual, duel
- Earn, urn
- Ewe, yew, you
- Faint, feint
- Fair, fare
- Farther, father
- Fate, fete
- Faun, fawn
- Fay, fey
- Faze, phase
- Feat, feet
- Ferrule, ferule
- Few, phew
- File, phial
- Find, fined
- Fir, fur
- Flair, flare
- Flaw, floor
- Flea, flee
- Flex, flecks
- Flew, flu, flue
- Floe, flow
- Flour, flower
- Foaled, fold
- For, fore, four
- Foreword, forward
- Fort, fought
- Forth, fourth
- Foul, fowl
- Franc, frank
- Freeze, frieze
- Friar, fryer
- Furs, furze
- Gait, gate
- Gamble, gambol
- Gays, gaze
- Genes, jeans
- Gild, guild
- Gilt, guilt
- Gnaw, nor
- Gneiss, nice
- Gorilla, guerrilla
- Grate, great
- Greave, grieve
- Greys, graze
- Groan, grown
- Guessed, guest
- Hail, hale
- Hair, hare
- Hall, haul
- Hangar, hanger
- Hart, heart
- Haw, hoar, whore
- Hay, hey
- Heal, heel, he’ll
- Hear, here
- Heard, herd
- He’d, heed
- Heroin, heroine
- Hew, hue
- Hi, high
- Higher, hire
- Him, hymn
- Ho, hoe
- Hoard, horde
- Hoarse, horse
- Holey, holy, wholly
- Hour, our
- Idle, idol
- In, inn
- Indict, indite
- It’s, its
- Jewel, joule
- Key, quay
- Knave, nave
- Knead, need
- Knew, new
- Knight, night
- Knit, nit
- Knob, nob
- Knock, nock
- Knot, not
- Know, no
- Knows, nose
- Laager, lager
- Lac, lack
- Lade, laid
- Lain, lane
- Lam, lamb
- Laps, lapse
- Larva, lava
- Lase, laze
- Law, lore
- Lay, ley
- Lea, lee
- Leach, leech
- Lead, led
- Leak, leek
- Lean, lien
- Lessen, lesson
- Levee, levy
- Liar, lyre
- Licker, liquor
- Lie, lye
- Lieu, loo
- Links, lynx
- Lo, low
- Load, lode
- Loan, lone
- Locks, lox
- Loop, loupe
- Loot, lute
- Made, maid
- Mail, male
- Main, mane
- Maize, maze
- Mall, maul
- Manna, manner
- Mantel, mantle
- Mare, mayor
- Mark, marque
- Marshal, martial
- Mask, masque
- Maw, more
- Me, mi
- Mean, mien
- Meat, meet, mete
- Medal, meddle
- Metal, mettle
- Meter, metre
- Might, mite
- Miner, minor
- Mind, mined
- Missed, mist
- Moat, mote
- Mode, mowed
- Moor, more
- Moose, mousse
- Morning, mourning
- Muscle, mussel
- Naval, navel
- Nay, neigh
- None, nun
- Od, odd
- Ode, owed
- Oh, owe
- One, won
- Packed, pact
- Pail, pale
- Pain, pane
- Pair, pare, pear
- Palate, palette, pallet
- Paten, pattern,
- Pause, paws, pores, pours
- Pawn, porn
- Pea, pee
- Peace, piece
- Peak, peek
- Peal, peel
- Pearl, purl
- Pedal, peddle
- Peer, pier
- Pi, pie
- Place, plaice
- Plain, plane
- Pleas, please
- Plum, plumb
- Pole, poll
- Practice, practise
- Praise, prays, preys
- Principal, principle
- Profit, prophet
- Quarts, quartz
- Quean, queen
- Rain, reign, rein
- Raise, rays, raze
- Rap, wrap
- Raw, roar
- Read, reed
- Read, red
- Real, reel
- Reek, wreak
- Rest, wrest
- Retch, wretch
- Review, revue
- Rheum, room
- Right, rite, write
- Ring, wring
- Road, rode
- Roe, row
- Role, roll
- Roux, rue
- Rood, rude
- Root, route
- Rose, rows
- Rota, rotor
- Rote, wrote
- Rough, ruff
- Rouse, rows
- Rung, wrung
- Rye, wry
- Saver, savour
- Spade, spayed
- Sale, sail
- Sane, seine
- Satire, satyr
- Sauce, source
- Saw, soar, sore
- Scene, seen
- Scull, skull
- Sea, see
- Seam, seem
- Sear, seer, sere
- Seas, sees, seize
- Sew, so, sow
- Shake, sheikh
- Shear, sheer
- Shoe, shoo
- Sic, sick
- Side, sighed
- Sign, sine
- Sink, synch
- Slay, sleigh
- Sloe, slow
- Sole, soul
- Some, sum
- Son, sun
- Sort, sought
- Spa,spar
- Staid,stayed
- Stair,stare
- Stake,stoak
- Stalk,stork
- Stationary,stationery
- Steal,steel
- Stile,style
- Storey,story
- Straight,strait
- Sweat,sweet
- Swat,swot
- Tacks,tax
- Tale,tail
- Talk,torque
- Tare, tear
- Taught,taut,tort
- Tea,tee
- Team,teem
- Teas, tease
- Tare, tear
- Tern,t urn
- There,their, they’re
- Threw,through
- Throes,throws
- Throne, thrown
- Thyme,time
- Tic,tick
- Tide,tied
- Tire,tyre
- To,too,two
- Toad,toed,towed
- Told,tolled
- Tole,toll
- Ton,tun
- Tor,tore
- Tough,tuff
- Troop,troupe
- Tuba,tuber
- Vain,vane,vein
- Vale,veil
- Vial,vile
- Wail,wale,whale
- Wain, wane
- Waist, waste
- Waive, wave
- Wall, waul
- War, wore
- Warn, worn
- Watt, what
- Wax, whacks
- Way, weigh
- We, wee
- Weak, week
- We’d, weed
- Weal, we’ll, wheel
- Weather, whether
- Weir, we’re
- Were, whirr
- Wet, whet
- Weald, wheeled
- Which, witch
- Whig, wig
- While, wile
- Whine, wine
- Whirl, whorl
- Whirled, world
- Whit, wit
- White, wight
- Who’s, whose
- Wood, would
- Yaw, yore, your, you’re
- Yoke, yolk
- You’ll, yule
Exercise
Write two words pronounced the same way as each of the following words.
- B
- C
- I
- P
- T
- U
SILENT LETTERS
In English there are letters that are usually not pronounced in certain words. Let us have a look at these letters and words in which they are silent.
Letter ‘A’
- Logically
- Musically
- Romantically
- Stoically
- Artistically
Letter ‘B’
- Aplomb
- Bomb
- Climb
- Comb
- Crumb
- Debt
- Jamb
- Lamb
- Limb
- Numb
- Plumb
- Subtle
- Succumb
- Thumb
- Tomb
- Womb
Letter ‘C’
- Ascend
- Abscess
- Ascent
- Conscience
- Conscious
- Crescent
- Descend
- Descent
- Discipline
- Fascinate
- Fluorescent
- Isosceles
- Luminescent
- Muscle
- Obscene
- Resuscitate
- Scenario
- Scene
- Scent
- Scissors
Letter ‘D’
- Wednesday
- Hedge
- Dodge
- Pledge
- Grudge
- Sandwich
- Handkerchief
Letter ‘E’
- Hate
- Name
- Like
- Hope
- Lessen
- Surprised
Letter ‘G’
- Align
- Assign
- Benign
- Campaign
- Champagne
- Cologne
- Consign
- Gnarl
- Gnash
- Gnaw
- Gnome
- Gnu
- Reign
- Sign
Letter ‘H’
- Honest
- Hour
- Heir
- Honour
- Ache
- Anchor
- Archeology
- Architect
- Archives
- Chaos
- Character
- Cholera
- Charisma
- Chemical
- Chemist
- Chorus
- Choir
- Echo
- Loch
- Shepherd
- Monarch
- Scheme
- psych
Letter ‘I’
- Business
- Parliament
Letter ‘K’
- Knock
- Knapsack
- Knave
- Knead
- Knee
- Kneel
- Knell
- Knew
- Knickers
- Knife
- Knight
- Knit
- Knob
- Knock
- Knot
- Know
- Knowledge
- Knuckle
Letter ‘L’
- Calm
- Half
- Talk
- Walk
- Would
- Should
- Calf
- Salmon
- Yolk
- Folk
- Balk
Letter ‘N’
- Autumn
- Column
- Condemn
- Damn
- Hymn
- Solemn
Letter ‘O’
- Lesson
Letter ‘P’
- Psychology
- Pneumonia
- Pseudo
- Psychiatrist
- Psychotherapy
- Psychotic
- Receipt
- Corps
- Coup
Letter ‘S’
- Island
- Aisle
- Apropos
- Bourgeois
Letter ‘T’
- Apostle
- Bristle
- Bustle
- Castle
- fasten
- glisten
- hustle
- jostle
- listen
- moisten
- mortgage
- nestle
- rustle
- thistle
- trestle
- whistle
- wrestle
Letter ‘U’
- baguette
- biscuit
- build
- built
- circuit
- disguise
- guess
- guide
- guild
- guile
- guillotine
- guilt
- guilty
- guilty
- guise
- guitar
- rogue
- silhouette
- colleague
- tongue
Letter ‘W’
- awry
- playwright
- sword
- wrangle
- wrap
- wrapper
- wrath
- wreak
- wreath
- wreck
- wreckage
- wren
- wrench
- wretched
- wriggle
- wring
- wrinkle
- wrist
- writ
- write
- wrote
- wrong
- writhe
- wrong
- wrought
- wrung
- wry
Exercise
Identify the silent letter(s) in:
- debtor
- isle
- mock
- depot
- acquit
- womb
- patios
- thyme
- handsome
- sandwich
- government
- listen
- Christmas
- Whether
- Rapport
- Ballet
- Chalet
- Aplomb
- Ricochet
- Clothes
- Cupboard
- Faux
- Mnemonic
- Numb
- Rendezvous
- Catalogue
- Vegetable
- Asthma
- months
- debris
RIDDLES
- A riddle is a statement or a question with veiled meaning posed as a puzzle to be solved.
- The riddles play functions such as:
- They boost the creativity of kids.
- They entertain.
- Some examples of riddles include:
- What gets wetter and wetter the more it dries? A towel.
- What can you catch but not throw? A cold.
- What goes around the world but stays in a corner? A stamp.
- Give me food, and I will live; give me water, and I will die. What am I ? Fire.
Riddling Process
- There are two parties involved: the audience (respondents) and the challenger(or the riddler).
- There are basically four stages of a riddling process, but at times six.
- The parts of the riddling process are:
- The riddlerchallenges the audience. The challenge differs from community to community. Some phrases used here include: riddle riddle!, I have a riddle! Etc.
- The respondents accept the challenge. The invitations include: riddle come! Throw it! Etc.
- The riddler then poses the riddle.
- The guess or guesses. The audience tries to come up with the solution. If they are unable, then the next part follows.
- The challenger asks for a prize. The prize can be a town or city, or any other thing. The challenger accepts the prize.
- Then the solution is given by the challenger.
Exercise
Read the riddling convention below and then identify its six parts.
Challenger: I have a riddle!
Respondent: Throw it.
Challenger: What comes down but never goes up?
Respondent: Wind
Challenger: no, try again.
Respondent: Bird
Challenger: What will you give me if I offer the solution?
Respondent: You will have the entire fire to yourself.
Challenger: The answer is rain.
FEATURES OF OGRE STORIES AND TRICKSTERS
- OGRE STORIES
- An ogre usually represents an evil.
- Ogre are usually destroyed at the end.
- They have happy ending.
Functions of Ogre Stories
- They warn against strangers.
- They caution youth against marrying the people they don’t know.
- TRICKSTER STORIES
- A character makes up for a physical weakness with cunning and subversive humour.
- The trickster alternatives between:
- Cleverness and stupidity;
- Kindness and cruelty;
- Deceiver and deceived; and
- Breaker of taboos and creator of culture.
MASTERY OF CONTENT
DEBATE
- A formal contest of argumentation between two sides is what debate is.
- Debate embodies the ideals of reasoned argument, and tolerance for divergent points of view.
- There are two sides in the debate: the proposition and the
- These two teams are presented with a resolution, such as, ‘Girls and Boys Should play in a mixed football team.’
- The teams are given enough preparation time.
- The team affirming the resolution speaks first.
- The opposing team then must refute the arguments offered by the affirming team and offer arguments rejecting the resolution.
- Both sides are given the opportunity to present their positions and to directly question the other team.
- Neutral judge (s) then evaluate the persuasiveness of the arguments and offer constructive feedback.
Preparation Time
This is the time you have from when the motion is announced to the beginning of the debate. During this time:
- Research on the motion to get facts. The facts can be got from the teachers, other students, etc.
- Write notes on the facts. You can once in a while look at them during your presentation.
- Practice how to speak. Do it in front of friends and relatives, as well as in front of a mirror.
- If anxious, do some physical exercise. You can also take a deep breath just before your presentation.
- Dress decently.
Points Delivery
Here are the points that will help you be successful during your points delivery:
- Deliver your points in a confident and persuasive way.
- Vary your tone to make you sound interesting. Listening to one tone is boring.
- Speak quite loudly to be comfortably heard by everyone in the room. Shouting does not win debates.
- Make eye contact with your audience, but keep shifting your gaze. Don’t stare at one person.
- Concisely and clearly express your points to be understood by your audience members.
- Provide a proof for each point you put across. If you don’t you will not earn a point.
- Speak slowly and enunciate your words. When you slow down your speech, you give your audience and the judge more time to process your strong points.
- Use gestures to elaborate on your points.
- Pause to divide your major points.
Heckling
- Only supportive and argumentative heckling is permitted.
- Heckling is a brief phrase (about two words) or other non- verbal actions that are directed to the judge of the debate.
- They are reminder to the judge to pay close attention to the message immediately expressed by the speaker.
- There are two types of heckles:
- Those that are non-verbal, such as,
- Rapping the knuckles on the desktop.
- Rapping the palm on the desk.
- Stamping the feet
They are meant to encourage the judge to heed a particularly strong point being made by the speaker.
- Those that are verbal, such as,
- Objective
- Evidence
- Point of information
They are said after standing up by one member of the opposing side. These are meant to alert the judge to a problem in the opposing side’s argument.
Exercise
After you deliver your points during the debate, everyone claps for you. How could you have delivered your points to earn their heckling?
ETIQUETTE
Etiquette is the rules that indicate the proper and polite manner to behave.
USE OF COURTEOUS LANGUAGE
- When one uses courteous language, he/she uses a language that is very polite and polished to show respect.
- At no time should you allow yourself be rude, ill-mannered, impolite, inconsiderate, or even thoughtless.
- Being and remaining polite will go a long way in building relationships.
- To show politeness and respect:
- Use the word please in request;
- Say thank you to those who help or compliment you.
- Start your requests or interrogatives beginning with words such as can, could, may, will, or would.
- Say excuse me when you interrupt other people or intrude into their time or privacy.
- Use question tags.
- In this section, we shall learn the words and phrases that show respect.
- Please
- We use it when you want someone to do something for you. For example: Can you pass that cup, please?
- also used when you want something from someone. For example: Lend me ten shillings, please.
- Thank you
- Use it whenever someone does something for you.
- Use it when someone commends you.
- Sorry
- Say it any time you inconvenience someone.
- Say it when step on someone’s toes, etc.
- Also when someone asks you something you cannot do.
- Excuse me
To introduce a request to someone, or to get past someone, use this phrase. For example
Excuse me, can you show me where Amina lives?
- Pardon me
Almost as ‘excuse me’
Exercise 1
Jennifer has gone to the shop to buy a bar of soap. The shopkeeper tells her to be polite the next time she comes to buy from him. Showing where, which polite phrases could Jennifer have failed to use?
Exercise 2
Read the dialogue below and then explain how Jacinta expresses politeness.
John: I would like to send this letter to japan by airmail, how much is the charge?
Jacinta: It’s one pound, do you need extra stamps?
John: I do, I have been also expecting a package from New-York. Here is my identity card and receipt.
Jacinta: Would you mind signing this form? Here is the package.
John:Finally, I would like to send this registered letter to London.
Jacinta:Please fill in the complete address in capital letters.
NON VERBAL SKILLS IN LISTENING AND SPEAKING
IMPORTANCE OF RESPECTING PERSONAL SPACE
A personal space is an imaginary area between a person and their surrounding area. This space makes the person feel comfortable and should therefore not be encroached.
The distance can exist at work, at home and in our social circles.
The personal space varies depending on factors such as:
- Gender
- Trust
- Relationship
- Familiarity with the person.
Why Respect People’s personal Space?
- To make them feel comfortable.
- To maintain good relationships.
- To enhance listening. Especially during a talk.
General Personal Space Rules
The personal space guidelines below will help enhance listening and speaking:
- Respectfully keep your distance if you walk into a room and see two people in private conversation.
- Pay attention to your volume when you speak, whether on the phone or in person, to ensure you don’t distract attention of others.
- Maintain physical space at table and chair rows so the people around you have enough room to write, raise their hands, etc.
- Be mindful of amount of perfume or cologne you wear as if it is in excess it might distract others.
- Never lean on the other person’s shoulder unless invited to.
- Don’t eavesdrop on another person’s phone conversation. In case you overhear details of the conversation, keep it confidential.
Dealing with Space Intrusion
Depending on the nature of the intrusion, you would deal with space encroachment in different ways. Here are the steps of dealing with a person who leans on your shoulder:
- Lean away or take a step back away from the person hoping they would take a hint.
- Come right out and say you feel discomfort being too close.
- Explain why you need more space. You can for example tell them you need more space to write.
Exercise
You have attended a one day seminar. The person sitting next to you is said to be intruding your personal space. What four personal space guidelines could this person have failed to follow?
LISTENING AND SPEAKING ANSWERS
PRONUNCIATION OF VOWEL SOUNDS
/ᶦ/
- Hill
- Sit
- Still
- Blip
- Fill
- Blink
- Thrill
/i:/
- Jeep
- Creek
- Greased
- Teal
- cheat
/e/
- jet
- bed
- wet
PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANT SOUNDS
Exercise 1
Sound /s/: seven, students, first, test, licences
Sound /z/ : driver’s, licences, Thursday
Exercise 2
- Garage
- Gift
- Go
- Digit
- Entangle
- Gecko
Exercise 3
Sound /ᶴ/ :tissue, passion, ocean, cautious, solution, pressure, Persian, chef, sure, precious
Sound /ᶾ/ :Caucasian, division, leisure, vision, casual, conclusion, television, decision, collision, exposure
Exercise 4
Sound /f/ : forgive, for, forgetting, leftover, food
Sound /v/ :forgive, leftover
DIPHTHONGS
- Gate
- Made
- Male
- Pail
- Pane
- Plane
- Sail
- Tail
- Vane/vein
- Waste
- Weight
- Ate
- Sow
- Know
- Tow
- Groan
MINIMAL PAIRS
Exercise 1
- Heat
- Shit
- Teen
- Pitch
- Leap
- Knit
- Keep
- Ill
- Grid
- Peel
- Skid
- Scheme
Exercise 2
- Hid
- Mess
- Hem
- Led
- Fin
- Led
- Din
- Pig
Exercise 3
- Fail
- Pen
- Hell
- Sail/sale
- Whale
- Met
- Read/red
- Debt
- Main
- Stead
Exercise 4
- Bat
- Much
- Mud
- Flash
- Come
- Dam
- Sung
- Ankle
- Crush
- Suck
- Damp
- Tag
Exercise 5
- Merry
- Bland
- Kettle
- Vet
- Sex
- Track
- Tread
- Mat
Exercise 6
- Fir/fur
- Hard
- Purse
- Firm
- Shirk
- Cart
Exercise 7
- Ban
- Vote
- Best
- Bowels
- Bent
- Very
- Lobes
- Verb
Exercise 8
- Very
- Leave
- Fast
- Vine
- Halve
- Prove
- Fail
- Grieve
- Carve
- Vault
- File
- Strife
Exercise 9
- Bad
- Got
- Ride
- Ant
- add
- Bet
- Bought
- Aid
- Bed
- feed
- Hid
- Heard
- Mad
- Meant
- need
- Not
- Said
- Plate
- Sad
- Debt
Exercise 10
- Tag
- Flock
- Tuck
- Come
- Cash
- Jag
- Gave
- Sack
- League
- Grab
- Glass
- Could
- Coat
- Block
- Gill
- Duck
- Cut
- Lock
- Rag
- got
HOMOPHONES
- bee, be
- see, sea
- aye, eye
- pee, pea
- tea, tee
- ewe, you
SILENT LETTERS
- b
- s
- c
- t
- c
- b
- s
- h
- d
- d
- n
- t
- t
- h
- t
- t
- t
- b
- t
- e
- p
- x
- m
- b
- z
- ue
- e
- th
- th
- s
RIDDLES
- Challenge – I have a riddle!
- Acceptance – Throw it.
- Pose/ Riddle – What comes down but never goes up?
- Guesses – wind, bird
- Prize – Fire
- Solution – rain
Exercise 2
aabcddbceeccffccgghh
DEBATE
I could have:
- Spoken confidently
- Varied my tone appropriately
- Spoken loud enough to be heard by everyone
- Made my contact with my audience
- Provided proofs for my points in persuasive way.
- Spoken slowly and enunciated words correctly
- Used gestures that reinforced my ideas
- Paused at key points
USE OF COURTEOUS LANGUAGE
Exercise 1
- Failed to use ‘thank you’ after being given the bar of soap.
- Failed to use ‘please’ when asking to be given the bar of soap.
- Failed to use ‘excuse me’ to get the shopkeeper’s attention.
Exercise 2
- She has used ‘please’ when asking John to fill the address.
- She has used ‘would’ in asking questions.
IMPORTANCE OF RESPECTING PERSONAL SPACE
He could have failed to:
- Speak in a low voice during the talk.
- Maintain the physical distance between the two of us at the table.
- Resist leaning on my shoulder or chest.
- Resist eavesdropping on my phone conversation
READING FOR FORM ONE
READING SKILLS
SILENT READING
- It involves reading without pronouncing the words out loud.
- It is reading to oneself.
Bad Silent Reading Habits
The following are some of the bad silent habits which you must try to break:
(a) Moving your lips when you read
(b) Vocalizing
Vocalizing means that you are pronouncing words in the voice box of the throat without making sounds. This also slows your reading rate to that of speaking.
(c) Regressing out of habit
Regressing means rereading a word, phrase, or sentence out of habit and not because of need. Sometimes, it is necessary to reread something, especially in a difficult passage. But habitual, unnecessary regressing really slows you down.
(d) Reading one word at a time
(e) Moving of the head as one reads.
(f) Pointing the words as you read.
USING A DICTIONARY
Reasons for using a dictionary
A dictionary is a very important tool for anyone who is learning a new language. With a good dictionary you can do the following:
- look up the meaning of an English word you see or hear
- find the English translation of a word in your language
- check the spelling of a word
- check the plural of a noun or past tense of a verb
- find out other grammatical information about a word
- find the synonym or antonym of a word
- look up the collocations of a word
- check the part of speech of a word
- find out how to say a word
- find out about the register of a word
- find examples of the use of a word in natural language
To be a good dictionary user, however, it is not enough to know what to use the dictionary for. You must also decide which is the best dictionary for any of the purposes listed above.
Finding words quickly
- You will need to know the English alphabet perfectly.
- Use the guide words at the top of each dictionary page.
Finding the right meaning of an English word
Very often when you look up a new English word, you find that it has more than one meaning. If you are not sure which one is correct, check through all the meanings and find the one that makes most sense in the context where you found the word.
Finding the right spelling
Another problem you may have is when you want to check your spelling but you can’t find the word you’re looking for. Here is what to do:
- If you are sure of the first few letters, just look down the page until you find the right spelling.
- If you are not sure of the first few letters, try some other possibilities. You know for example that some words that start with an -n sound have p as their first letter; e.g. . So if you can’t find the word under N, try looking in the P pages.
USING THE LIBRARY
When you walk into a library, there are many resources at your fingertips. You just need to know what to use, how to use it, and when to ask for help.
Different Types of Libraries to Use
Depending on the topic you need to study, you might find that different libraries might serve you better.
The different types of libraries include:
- Public: This library is the typical library working to make sure the local community has the books it needs without having to charge anyone to read them.
- Home library
- Class library.
- School library
Using the library is easy and it only takes a little direction from you in order to fully realize how many books can help you with your topic of study.
Consulting the Librarian
At times, you may not know where to begin with a research topic. If you are not sure where to go or what questions to ask, it can help to bring in a third party who is not attached to your research: the librarian.
Talking to the librarian will help have book titles that have been helpful to you. If you already have found helpful books, show the librarian so they can look for similar books in the stacks.
COMPREHENSION SKILLS
SUMMARY AND NOTE-MAKING
SUMMARIES
SUMMARY
- An excellent summary is a summary written to show that you have read and understood something.
- You will get assignments that ask you to read a certain material and summarize it.
How to produce a summary:
1.Read the material to be summarized and be sure you understand it.
2.Outline the major points.
3.Write a first draft of the summary without looking at the material.
4.Always use paraphrase when writing a summary.
5.Target your first draft for approximately 1/4 the length of the original.
6.Never put any of your own ideas, opinions, or interpretations into the summary. This means you have to be very careful of your word choice.
- Write in prose – not point form.
NOTE-MAKING
NOTE MAKING
How to Make Notes
The following tips will come in handy when making notes:
- Read the material carefully and thoroughly.
- Underline the key sentences as you read. This will help in forming the title.
- Make a rough note of the main points in a logical sequence.
- Write the final notes.
You should have in mind that a note:
- Should be short and to the point.
- Contain all the important and relevant information.
- Should have information systematically divided and subdivided.
- Should have a short title. Avoid long sentences as titles.
- Must be written in points only.
Notes Template
TITLE …………………….
- ………………………………………….
- …………………………………………
- ………………………………………..
- ………………………………………..
GRAMMAR FOR FORM ONE
PARTS OF SPEECH
NOUNS
- COMMON NOUNS
- They are simply words that name people, places, things, or ideas.
- They are not the actual names.
- The word ‘teacher’ is a common noun, but the word ‘Halima’ is not.
- A common noun identifies a thing, etc.
- Example of common nouns are:
- People: teacher, father, secretary, woman, girl, etc
- Animals: Tiger, Dog, Cow, etc
- Things: Chair, desk, cup, phone, etc
- Places: City, town, continent, etc
- Ideas: envy, hate, love, pride, etc
How to Capitalize Common Nouns
The simple rule is: don’t capitalize a common noun, unless it is the first word in a sentence, or part of a title.
Examples in Sentences
- Let’s go to that hotel.
- I visit a town during the holidays.
Exercise
Substitute the underlined word(s) with a common noun. You can add a word before the noun.
- John and Nick were taught.
- I have visited Asia.
- She lives in Nairobi.
- We eat at the Hilton.
- Have you ever swum in the Nile?
- I drive Mercedes Benz.
- Everyone went shopping at Tuskys.
- Corporal Jones has died.
- I come from Rwanda.
- I am teach at Alliance.
- PROPER NOUNS
- A proper noun is a name used for an individual person, thing, or a place.
- They always begin in capital letters no matter where they occur in sentences.
- Look at the table below.
Common Noun | Proper Noun | Example in a Sentence |
Teacher
President
City |
Mr. Kamau
Mr. Uhuru Kenyatta
Mombasa |
Mr. Kamau is our teacher of English.
Mr Uhuru Kenyatta is in the state house. Mombasa is the place I go every weekend.
|
Exercise
Identify proper nouns in the sentences below.
- I will take you to Rich’s Palace.
- Sarah is the girl I told you about.
- Of all the continents, I like Africa the most.
- Gracy is the cutest kitten ever.
- I am craving Oreos.
- I used Tilly in cooking.
- Jupiter is one of the planets.
- Margaret was a great author.
- CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT NOUNS
Concrete Nouns
- A concrete noun register to our senses.
- You can see, hear, taste, smell, or even feel them.
- The examples are:
- Table
- Ball
- House
- Rice
- Water
- Wool
Abstract Nouns
- They don’t register to one’s senses.
- They are just ideas, feelings, or qualities.
- Some examples of abstract nouns include:
- Health
- Interest
- Sleep
- Traffic
- Advice
- Education
- Business
- Insurance
- Happiness
- Peace
- Knowledge
- History
- Noise
- Intelligence
- Anger
- Fun
- Pride
- Confidence
- Determination
- Law
- Laughter
Example in Sentences
- Education is the key to life.
- All the teacher wanted was a proof.
- I will apply once the opportunity presents itself.
- They are calling for justice.
- You need to change your behaviour.
- Love makes the world go round.
Exercise 1
Identify the nouns in the sentences and write whether it they are concrete or abstract.
- A man must always have the courage to face every challenge.
- No matter what happens, we must not lose hope.
- My faith in God is very strong.
- A person should buy a beautiful dress.
- Have you seen the black dog?
- Love is blind.
Exercise 2
Fill the blank with the appropriate form of the word in brackets.
- She asked for my _______________ about this book. (advise)
- The _________________ in Kenya is not as good as it was 10 years ago. (educate)
- The way she answers questions shows she has above average _____________. (intelligent)
- She explained the ________________ of physical exercise. (important)
- _____________ means different things to different people. (happy)
- ___________ is all that will help. (confident)
- It is _______________ that comes before a fall. (proud)
- His ______________ led him to kill Ojwang. (angry)
- The composition she wrote showed a high level of ______________. (imagine)
- You will die out of ___________. (lonely)
- COUNT AND NON COUNT NOUNS
A concrete noun can either be categorized as count or non-count.
Count Nouns
- A count noun can be expressed in plural form, normally with an “-s”, for example,
- Season – seasons
- Dog – dogs
- Teacher – teachers
- When you look around the classroom, there are things that you can count. What are they? The list of things you can probably see are:
- Chairs
- Tables
- Flag
- Textbooks
- Desks
- Cups
- Such nouns can be preceded by appropriate articles, whether singular or plural.
Non-Count Nouns
- Also referred to as mass nouns.
- Nouns falling under this category are those:
- That cannot be counted
- That do not have plural forms.
- Below are the examples of non-count nouns.
- Luggage
- Weather
- Equipment
- Oxygen
- Wood
- Plastic
- Hair
- Air
- Milk
- Juice
- Beer
- Soccer
- Biology
- Reading
- Glass
- Sunshine
- Rice
- History
- News
- Mathematics
- Electricity
- Meat
- Furniture
Examples in Sentences
- This is school equipment.
- Plastic is a non conductor.
- PLURAL NOUNS
- There are rules for spelling plural nouns.
General Rules for Spelling Plural Nouns
- Most nouns add “-s”, for example
- Book – books
- Pen – pens
- Phone – phones
- Most nouns that end in “-ch”, “-sh”, “-s”, “-x”, or “-z” add “-ies”, for example,
- Church – churches
- Box – boxes
- Prize – prizes
- Bus – buses
- Most nouns that end in a consonant and “-y” becomes “-ies”, for example,
- Spy – spies
- Community – communities
- Activity – activities
- Country – countries
- Most nouns that end in “-f”, or “-fe” add “-ves”, for example,
- Elf – elves
- Wolf – wolves
- Half – halves
- Knife – knives
- Scarf – scarves
- Some nouns that end in a consonant and “o”, add “-es”, for example,
- Tomato – tomatoes
- Buffalo – buffaloes
- Volcano – volcanoes
- Hero – heroes
- Mosquito – mosquitoes
- Some nouns only change their vowels, for example,
- Goose – geese
- Man – men
- Mouse – mice
- Tooth – teeth
There are those that do not change at all, for example,
- Deer
- Species
- Fish
- Sheep
- There are a few nouns that have plural forms which are left from old English, for example,
- Child – children
- Ox – oxen
- Then there are those of Latin origin. They are like:
- Antenna – antennae
- Appendix – appendices, appendixes
- Cactus – cacti
- Stadium – stadia, stadiums
- Terminus – termini, terminuses
- Referendum – referenda, referendums
- Index – indices, indexes
- Formula – formulae, formulas
- Curriculum – curricula, curriculums
ARTICLES
- An article is a kind of adjective.
- It is used with a noun and gives some information about that noun.
- There are two articles:
- A
- The
- The article “a” has a form “an”.
- Article “a” is known as the indefinite article. It is called indefinite since the noun it goes with is indefinite or general.
- The form “an” is used when the noun it precedes begins with a vowel.
- The article “a” has the same meaning as number “one”. For example, one can say:
I have bought a pen. Or
I have bought one pen.
- The article “the” is definite article.
- A definite article indicates a specific thing. Can you identify the difference between the pair of sentences below?
- I bought a pen.
- I bought the pen.
The second sentence shows that I bought a particular pen, and not any other.
- The article “the” is used with count nouns when:
- We use the noun a second and subsequent times.
- The listener knows what you are referring to.
Exercise
Fill in the blank with appropriate article. Leave the space blank if no article is needed.
- I have to eat ______________ apple today.
- She has __________ dog at home.
- My son has learnt how to play __________ piano.
- Tom likes to play ______________ basketball.
- There is ___________ new book on the table.
- ___________ teacher is late this morning.
- ___________ ink in my pen is black.
- She speaks _________ Japanese.
- What ___________ expensive bike!
- He is _____________ honest person.
PRONOUNS
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
- They represent specific people or things.
- They are used depending on:
- Number: whether singular or plural
- Person: whether first, second, or third persons
- Gender: whether male, female, or neuter
- Case : whether in the case of subject or object
Number versus Person
Number | First Person | Second Person | Third Person |
Singular | I
|
You | He/she/it |
Plural | We
|
You | They |
Gender versus Person
Person | Gender | ||
Male | Female | Neuter | |
First person | |||
Second person | |||
Third person | He | She | It |
Case
- The pronouns used as subjects are:
- I
- We
- He
- She
- It
- They
- You
- The pronouns below are used as objects:
- Me
- Us
- Him
- Her
- It
- You
- Them
Examples in Sentences
- I like it.
- You are my best friend.
- She is running from the truth.
- Get me that book please.
- They are interviewing them.
Exercise 1
Fill the blanks with correct forms of pronouns in brackets.
- __________ am the new class prefect. (me)
- ___________ doesn’t matter. (they)
- Does Martha like ____________? (he)
- Killion helped ___________. (I)
- Did you see ___________ ? (she)
Exercise 2
Replace the underlined words with an appropriate pronoun.
- The old gate doesn’t look good.
- Tom and Mary went to school.
- The dog bit the doctor and the chief.
- Moses runs faster than Rebecca.
- Phiona and Ruth played doubles.
- Christine is clever.
- I brought the dress.
- Antony drove Junet and me.
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
- We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person or people, or thing or things that belong to a person or people, or things.
- Just like personal pronouns, they are used depending on:
- Number
- Person
- Gender
- Case
Number and Person
- In singular we use:
Mine – first Person
Yours — second person
His/hers/its – third person
- In plural, use:
Ours – first person
Yours – second person
Theirs – third person
Gender
- For male gender, the pronoun below are used:
His
- For female gender use, hers
Case
A possessive pronoun can either be a subject or object.
Examples in Sentences
- Mine is that one.
- This one is mine.
- The cars are yours.
- Yours are those ones over there.
- Hers has been stolen.
- This building is ours.
Exercise
Complete each sentence with the possessive pronoun form of the word(s) underlined.
- Martha did _____________ homework in time.
- Have you got ___________ money.
- I like your name. Do you like ___________ ?
- Hector and Emmy have seen your bag. Have you seen ____________?
- Jane, my flowers are dying. ____________ are good.
- I have come with my sister. ___________ name is Alice.
- Sophie and Gerges study Science. _____________ teacher is kind.
- We love __________ new boss.
- He is in __________ house.
- Are you and your friend enjoying __________ weekend?
- The cat has bit ___________ tail.
- Right has a brother. ___________ is 10 years old.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
- They are special kind of pronouns.
- A reflexive pronoun is used when the object of a sentence is the same as the subject.
- Each personal pronoun has its own reflexive form.
- The table below shows personal pronouns with their equivalent reflexive pronouns.
Personal Pronoun | Reflexive Pronoun |
I | Myself |
You (singular) | Yourself |
You (plural) | Yourselves |
He | Himself |
She | Herself |
It | Itself |
We | Ourselves |
They | Themselves |
When Reflexive Pronouns are Used
Reflexive pronouns are used when:
- The object and the subject are similar. For example,
- She bit herself.
The subject she and the object herself are similar.
- They betrayed
- Matthew likes himsel
- They are used as the object of prepositions. In the sentences below, the words underlined are the prepositions and the ones in boldface are the objects of those prepositions.
- Young bought a pencil for himself.
- Halima mopped the room by herself.
- The mad man talks to himself.
- They are also used when emphasizing the subjects. Examples
- I ate all the rice myself. This means no one else had any.
- Dan will wash the clothes himself. This means she will be helped by no one.
Can you differentiate between the pair of sentences below?
She bought the pen herseif.
She bought the dress for herself.
Exercise
Fill the correct form of reflexive pronoun for each blank space.
- In the evening, we went to the market to buy _________________ food to cook.
- I don’t know whether they went to school or whether they taught ______________ .
- If you hurt ______________ , don’t cry to anyone.
- This cat caught the rat _____________ .
- Whenever I see ___________ in a mirror, I smile to ___________ .
- That little duck is washing _____________ in the pond.
- Jonathan ate all the food _____________ .
- Good evening everyone? Please make _____________ comfortable.
- Since the school is their father’s, they give _______________ break whenever they feel like.
- Mary bought the dress for _____________ .
FUNCTIONS OF PRONOUNS
- A pronoun can be used where a noun or a noun phrase can be used in a sentence.
- Pronouns perform the following functions in a sentence:
- As the Subject of a Verb
- The subject of verb is that which performs that action.
- Some of the pronouns used as subjects of the verbs are:
He
She
I
They
We etc
Examples in Sentences
- He is my best friend.
- You are the one I saw.
- They are the school administrators.
- As the Object of A Verb
- An object is the recipient of the action.
- Some object pronouns include:
Me
You
Him
Her
Them
It etc
Examples in Sentences
- Richard escorted him.
- He separated them.
- I saw her.
- As the Object of a preposition
An object of preposition immediately follows the preposition.
Examples
- I will think about it.
- I bought it for him.
VERBS
- A verb is a word that shows an action, state, or even an occurrence.
- There are two main verb types:
- Lexical verbs
- Auxiliary verbs
- In this section, we shall study Lexical verbs.
LEXICAL VERBS
- A lexical verb is the main verb in a sentence.
- It does not need a helping verb as it carries the meaning.
- The examples are:
- Talk
- Sing
- Run
- Jump
- Eat
- Go etc
- Depending on how they form their past tense and past participle forms, they are grouped as regular or irregular verbs.
Examples in Sentences
- I work at the station.
- She drives a fancy car.
- I gave you all I had.
REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS
- Verbs are subdivided into regular and irregular verbs depending on how their past tense and past participles are formed.
- A regular verb adds –ed or –d to the end of the base forms.
Examples of Regular Verbs
Verb | Past Tense | Past Participle |
Call
Plan Jump Kill Fill |
Called
Planned Jumped killed filled |
Called
Planned Jumped Killed filled
|
Examples In Sentences
- He jumped over the fence.
- He killed the cat.
- For Irregular verbs, there is no formula that predict their past tense and past participle forms.
- They include:
Verb | Past Tense | Past Participle |
Sweep
Cut Come Go Meet Is/am |
Swept
Cut Came Went Met Was |
Swept
Cut Came Went Met Been
|
Examples in Sentences
- He ran towards the river.
- Have you repaid the loan?
- I have swum.
TENSES
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
- The simple present tense is used to express:
- Habitual actions, for example,
- She eats fish.
- She washes her clothes every week.
- We see movies every evening.
- Some general truths, for example,
- Water boils at 100 degrees.
- The month of April has 30 days.
Points to Remember on The Simple Present Third Person Singular
- The verb usually ends in –s, for example,
- He runs
- She runs
- It runs
- Negative and question are “does”, for example,
- He does not run.
- Does he run?
- She does not run.
- Does she run?
- In case of negative and question, the next verb after “does” does not add an -s
Present Simple Tense – Negative
A negative sentence is usually formed by using “not”.
Examples in Sentences
- I do not like it.
- We do not like it.
- You do not like it.
- She does not like it.
- He does not like it.
- They do not like it.
Present Simple Tense – Questions
The questions are formed by using either “do” or “does” at the beginning.
Examples in Sentences
- Do you like it?
- Do we like it?
- Do you like it?
- Does she like it?
- Does he like it?
- Do they like it?
Exercise 1
Rewrite each sentence below following the instruction in brackets. Do not change the meaning of the sentence.
- I live in Maragua. (begin with: do)
- Right comes to school daily. (begin: does)
- She does not play rugby. (do not use: not)
- The train leaves at 8.00 am. (use: 9.00 am)
- Does he forget his wallet? (begin: he)
Exercise 2
Use the correct form of the verb in brackets to complete each of the following sentences.
- I ______________ fifteen years old now. (be)
- Moureen ______________ at Githurai. (live)
- Emilly ___________ dinner for them. (cook)
- The students ____________ lunch at 1.00 pm. (eat)
- My grandmother ____________ medicine when she is sick. (take)
- It normally ____________ here in April. (rain)
- It _____________ in May as much as it does in March. (rain)
- They ___________ French twice a week. (study)
- Mr Gregory ______________ Geography at Lukenya High School.
- George _____________ to church every Sunday. (go)
SIMPLE PAST TENSE
- A simple past tense is used to talk about a completed action in a time before now.
- The time of action can be in the recent past or the distant past.
Examples
- I walked all the way to school.
- We saw them at the restaurant.
- They played the piano.
- She ate her lunch at 1.00 pm.
How to Form the Simple Past Tense
Simple Past in Negative Statement
The pattern here is:
Subject+Auxiliary+not
She did not call.
Simple Past in Interrogative
Did she call you?
Exercise
Fill in the correct form of word in brackets to complete each sentence.
- I ______________ to the theatre last week. (go)
- It _________ interesting. (be)
- I __________ three sites last year. (visit)
- It ____________ as it did the the previous week. (rain)
- She ____________ a single card from her relatives.(receive)
- We ___________ to a new house last month. (move)
- They ____________ us pizza yesterday. (bring)
- I ____________ a big lion. (see)
- Where _______________ your last weekend? (spend/you)
- It was cold, so I _________________ off my coat. (take)
- Since the door was opened, the bird _____________ into the house.
- The car wasn’t expensive. It _____________ very much. (cost)
ADJECTIVES
COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS
Comparatives
The comparative form of an adjective is used to compare two people or things. Example
He is quicker than Ngure.
Superlatives
The superlative form of an adjective is used to compare more than two people or things. Example
He is the quickest of the three.
Ways of Making Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
- Adjectives with One Syllable
In general, if an adjective has one syllable, then –er or –r for comparative and –est or –st for supelatives are added to the adjective. Examples
Adjective | Comparative Form | Superlative Form |
Hot
Tall Small Large Thin Nice |
Hotter
Taller Smaller Larger Thinner Nicer |
Hottest
Tallest Smallest Largest Thinnest Nicest |
- Adjectives with Two Syllables
- There are those that simply add –er or –r for comparative, and –est or –st for superlative. Examples
- Feeble Feebler Feeblest
- some use theword “more” for comparative, and “most” for superlative forms. Examples
- famous more famous most famous
- There are those that can do with either –er or –r , or more for comparative and –est or –st , or most for superlative. They are special adjectives.Examples
- Clever Cleverer (more clever) Cleverest (most clever)
- Simple Simpler (more simple) Simplest (most simple)
- Other special adjectives are:
- Quiet
- Polite
- Pleasant
- Likely
- Commonly
- Sure
- Adjectives with Three or More Syllables
Word more for comparative and most for superlatives are used. Examples
Interesting moreinteresting most interesting
Attractive more attractive most attractive
- Irregular adjectives
Some adjectives have Irregular comparative and superlative forms. Examples
Adjective | Comparative Form | Superlative Form |
Bad
Good Little Much |
Worse
Better Less More |
Worst
Best Least Most
|
REGULAR AND IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES
- The way an adjective make comparative and superlative forms is what determines whether it is regular or irregular.
Regular Adjectives
- A regular adjective adds –er or more in comparative form, and –est or most for superlatives.
- The table below illustrates this.
Adjective | Comparative | Superlative |
Small
Nice Pretty Beautiful |
Smaller
Nicer Prettier More beautiful
|
Smallest
Nicest Prettiest Most beautiful |
Irregular Adjectives
- They have completely different forms.
- It is not easy to predict their comparative and superlative forms.
- Examples are:
- Good
- Bad etc
GRADABLE AND NON GRADABLE ADJECTIVES
Gradable Adjectives
- A gradable adjective has different degrees.
- You can say “very hot” or “a bit hot”. Hot is therefore a gradable adjective. Other gradable adjectives are:
- Cold
- Warm
- Tall
- Nice etc
- There are grading adverbs that can be used with gradable adjectives. They include:
- A bit
- Very
- Extremely
- Quite
- Really
- So etc
Examples in Sentnces
- It is extremely cold
- This novel is quite interesting.
- The girl is very beautiful.
- She is reasonably popular.
Non-Gradable Adjectives
- They do not have different degrees.
- Some examples of non gradable adjectives are:
- Excellent
- Impossible
- Digital
- Domestic
- Unique
- Absolutely
- Nearly
- Chemical
- Totally
- One cannot say “very dead” or “really dead”. The adjective “dead” is thus, a non-gradable adjective.
- A grading adverb cannot be used with the non-gradable adjectives.
Example in a Sentence
- The dead relative will be buried soon.
ADVERBS
ADVERBS OF MANNER
- They tell us the manner in which the action happened, happens, or will happen.
- The examples are:
- Carefully
- Slowly
- Loudly
- Easily etc
Examples in Sentences
- She answered it correctly.
- The problem was solved easily.
- He drives
- He walked quickly.
- He runs fast.
ADVERBS OF TIME
- An adverb of time tell us when an action happens.
- An adverb of time can also tell us for how long that action occurred. For example, three months.
- Some examples of adverbs of time are:
- Today
- Next week
- Late
- Early
- Morning
- Last year
- Two months time, etc
Examples in Sentences
- I saw it yesterday.
- He came to school late.
- She watched the whole day.
ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
- These are adverbs that answer questions “How frequently?” or “how often?”.
- They tell us how often something happens.
- There are two types of adverbs of frequency:
- Adverbs of definite frequency, for example,
- Monthly
- Daily
- Hourly
- Weekly
- Yearly
- Every minute
- Twice a month
- Once
- Three times a day, etc
Examples in Sentences
- Employees pay taxes monthly.
- The storekeeper checks the store every day.
- I review my notes every week.
- Adverbs of indefinite frequency, for example,
- Never
- Sometimes
- Often
- Always
- Seldom
- Frequently
- Occasionally
- Usually
Examples in Sentences
- She is never
- I often do my assignment.
- They sometimes visit me.
PREPOSITIONS
SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS
- A preposition joins words together and show the relationship between the different parts of a sentence.
- The following are the simple prepositions with examples in sentences:
- In, on, at
He is in the house.
The cup is on the table.
He teaches at a school in Wajir.
- Above, below
Most students scored above 50.
Few students scored below 4o.
- Over, under
Don’t jump over the fence.
The cat is hiding under the bed.
- Around, through
The flowers we planted around the house.
The spear went through his body.
- Before, after
I will see him before lunch.
He is leaving after lunch.
- To, from
I am coming from Limuru.
I am going to Nairobi.
- About, by
Have you read the story about an ogre?
The story was written by Kendagor.
- With, without
He didn’t want to go with us.
We went without him.
- Between, among
This is a secret between you and me.
There is no secret among many.
- Inside, outside
The bottle is inside the box.
The spoon is outside the box.
PREPOSITIONS COMBINATIONS
Adjective+Preposition
Specific prepositions are used after certain adjectives. There is no definite rule to ascertain which preposition should be used with which adjective. We simply need to learn them.
Here is a list of some commonly used adjectives and the prepositions that normally follow them:
ADJECTIVE | PREPOSITION |
accustomed | To |
Afraid | Of |
Accused | Of |
acquainted | With |
Addicted | To |
Annoyed | about/with/at |
Allergic | To |
Amazed | at/by |
Anxious | About |
appreciated | For |
Ashamed | Of |
associated | With |
astonished | at/by |
Aware | Of |
Angry | With |
Afraid | Of |
Attached | To |
Bad | At |
Based | On |
beneficial | To |
Boastful | For |
Bored | With |
Brilliant | At |
Busy | With |
Capable | Of |
Careful | with/about/of |
Certain | About |
characteristic | Of |
Clever | At |
connected | With |
conscious | Of |
Content | With |
Crazy | About |
Crowded | With |
Curious | About |
dissatisfied | With |
Doubtful | About |
Delighted | at/about |
Derived | From |
Different | From |
disappointed | With |
Eager | For |
Eligible | For |
enthusiastic | About |
Excellent | in/at |
Excited | About |
experienced | In |
Exposed | To |
Envious | Of |
Faithful | To |
Familiar | With |
Famous | For |
fed up | With |
Free | of/from |
frightened | Of |
Friendly | With |
Fond | Of |
Furious | About |
Furnished | With |
Full | Of |
Generous | with/about |
Guilty | of/about |
Gentle | With |
Good | At |
Grateful | To |
Happy | About |
Hopeful | of/about |
Identical | with/to |
Immune | To |
impressed | With |
Inferior | To |
indifferent | To |
Innocent | Of |
interested | In |
Involved | With |
Incapable | Of |
Jealous | Of |
Kind | To |
Keen | On |
Late | For |
Limited | To |
Lucky | At |
Nervous | of/about |
Notorious | For |
Opposed | To |
Patient | With |
pessimistic | About |
Pleased | With |
Polite | To |
Popular | With |
Presented | With |
Proud | Of |
Punished | For |
Puzzled | by/about |
Qualified | For |
Ready | For |
Related | To |
Relevant | To |
respectful | For |
responsible | For |
Rid | Of |
Sad | About |
Safe | From |
Satisfied | With |
Scared | Of |
Sensitive | To |
Serious | About |
Sick | Of |
Similar | To |
Shocked | By |
Skilful | At |
Slow | At |
Sorry | for/about |
successful | In |
Suitable | For |
Sure | of/about |
Superior | To |
Surprised | At |
suspicious | Of |
sympathetic | With |
terrible | At |
terrified | Of |
tired | Of |
thankful | to/for |
trilled | With |
troubled | With |
typical | Of |
unaware | Of |
upset | About |
used | To |
wrong | with/about |
worried | About |
Examples in Sentences
1. It was nice of you to help me.
2. Why are you so angry about it? They were furious with me for not inviting them to my party. 3. I was disappointed with the book she bought me. 4. I was pleased with the present you gave me. Were you disappointed with your examination result 5. They have been astonished by something. 6. Everyone was surprised by /at the news. 7. Are you excited about going on holiday next week? 8. Are you afraid of dogs? 9. I’m not ashamed of what I did. 10. I’m not very good at driving big cars. 11. Your composition is full of errors. 12. Your name is similar to mine. |
Verb +Preposition Combination
- Some verbs need a preposition before an object or another verb.
- These kinds are called dependent prepositions and they are followed by a noun or a gerund (‘ing’ form).
- Here are some other verbs with their dependent prepositions.
account for |
accuse SO of ST |
adapt to |
add SO/ST to SO/ST |
add to |
adjust to |
admit ST to SO |
admit to |
agree on |
agree to |
agree with |
apologize to SO for ST |
appeal to SO for ST |
approve of |
argue with SO about SO/ST |
argue with SO over ST |
arrange for SO (to do something) |
arrest SO for ST |
arrive at (a place) |
ask for |
base on |
be absent from (a place) |
be accustomed to |
be acquainted with |
be addicted to ST |
be afraid of |
be angry at SO for ST |
be angry with SO for ST |
be annoyed at SO for ST |
be annoyed with SO for ST |
be anxious about ST |
be associated with |
be aware of |
be blessed with |
be bored by |
be bored with |
be capable of ST |
be cluttered with ST |
be committed to |
be composed of |
be concerned about |
be connected to |
be connected with |
be content with |
be convinced of ST |
be coordinated with ST |
be crowded in (a building or room) |
be crowded with (people) |
be dedicated to |
be devoted to |
be disappointed in |
be disappointed with |
be discouraged by |
be discouraged from (doing something) |
be discriminated against |
be divorced from SO |
be done with ST |
be dressed in |
be encouraged with |
be engaged in ST |
be engaged to SO |
be envious of |
be equipped with ST |
be excited about |
be exposed to |
be faced with |
be faithful to |
be familiar with |
be famous for |
be filled with |
be finished with |
be fond of |
be friendly to SO |
be friendly with SO |
be frightened by |
be frightened of |
be furnished with ST |
be grateful to SO for ST |
be guilty of ST |
be happy about ST |
be innocent of ST |
be interested in |
be involved in ST |
be involved with |
be jealous of |
be known for ST |
be limited to |
be made from ST |
be made of (material) |
be married to |
be opposed to |
be patient with SO |
be pleased with |
be polite to SO |
be prepared for |
be protected from |
be proud of |
be related to |
be relevant to |
be remembered for ST |
be responsible for |
be satisfied with |
be scared of |
be terrified of |
be thankful for |
be tired from (doing something) |
be tired of (doing something) |
be worried about |
beg for |
begin with |
believe in |
belong to |
benefit from |
blame SO for ST |
blame ST on SO |
boast about |
borrow ST from SO |
care about |
care for |
catch up with |
cater to |
charge SO for ST |
charge SO with ST |
choose between SO/ST and SO/ST |
chose ST from ST |
collide with |
come from |
comment on |
communicate with SO |
compare SO/ST to SO/ST |
compare SO/ST with SO/ST |
compete with |
complain about |
compliment SO on ST |
concentrate on |
concern SO with ST |
confess to |
confuse SO/ST with SO/ST |
congratulate SO on ST |
consent to ST |
consist of |
contribute to ST |
convict SO of ST |
cope with |
correspond with SO |
count on |
cover with |
crash into |
cure SO of ST |
deal with |
decide against |
decide between SO/ST and SO/ST |
decide on |
dedicate ST to SO |
demand ST from SO |
depend on |
derive ST from ST |
deter SO from ST |
devote ST to SO |
differ from |
disagree with |
disapprove of |
discourage SO from ST |
discuss ST with SO |
distinguish between SO/ST and SO/ST |
distinguish SO/ST from SO/ST |
distract SO from ST |
dream about |
dream of |
dress SO in ST |
drink to |
elaborate on ST |
emerge from ST |
escape from (a place) |
exchange SO/ST for SO/ST |
exclude SO from ST |
excuse SO for ST |
expel SO from (a place) |
experiment on |
explain ST to SO |
feel about |
feel like |
fight about |
fight against |
fight for |
fight with |
forget about |
forgive SO for ST |
gamble on |
gawk at |
gaze at |
get back from (a place) |
get married to SO |
get rid of |
get through with |
get tired of |
get used to |
give ST to SO |
glare at |
gloat at |
grieve for |
gripe at SO |
grumble at SO about ST |
happen to |
harp on |
hear about |
hear from SO |
hear of |
help SO with ST |
hide ST from SO |
hinder SO/ST from ST |
hinge on |
hope for |
insist on |
insure against |
interfere in ST |
interfere with ST |
introduce SO/ST to SO/ST |
invest in |
invite SO to |
involve SO/ST in ST |
jabber about |
joke about |
joke with SO about SO/ST |
jot down ST |
laugh about |
laugh at |
learn about |
lend ST to SO |
listen for |
listen to |
long for |
look at |
look forward to |
meet with SO |
mistake SO/ST for SO/ST |
nod at |
nod to |
object to |
operate on |
participate in ST |
pay for |
persist in |
plan on |
praise SO for ST |
pray for |
prefer SO/ST to SO/ST |
prepare for |
present SO with ST |
prevent SO/ST from (doing something) |
prohibit SO from (doing something) |
provide for |
provide SO with ST |
provide SO/ST for SO |
punish SO for ST |
react to |
recover from ST |
refer to ST |
relate to |
rely on |
remind SO of SO/ST |
reply to |
rescue SO from SO/ST |
resign from ST |
respond to |
result in ST |
retire from ST |
save SO from ST |
search for |
sentence SO to ST |
separate SO/ST from SO/ST |
share ST with SO |
shout at |
show ST to SO |
smile at SO |
speak to SO about SO/ST |
specialize in ST |
spend (money/time) on |
stand for |
stare at |
stem from |
stop SO from (doing something) |
subject SO to ST |
subscribe to |
substitute SO/ST for SO/ST |
subtract ST from ST |
succeed at ST |
succeed in (doing something) |
suffer from |
suspect SO of ST |
take advantage of |
take care of |
talk about |
talk to |
tell SO about ST |
thank SO for ST |
think about |
think of |
toast to |
translate ST into (a language) |
trust SO with ST |
turn to |
use ST for ST |
vote against |
vote for |
wait for |
warn about |
waste (money/time) on |
wish for |
work for |
work on |
worry about |
write about |
write to SO |
yap about |
yearn for |
Exercise 1
Fill the blank spaces with the most appropriate prepositions.
- She has placed the cup _____________ the table.
- I will allow you go _________ the field.
- She is singing _________ her room.
- Is he ________ home now?
- He lives _________ Nairobi.
- Don’t be late _________ class.
- Compare your points __________ your friend’s.
- Are the new student ________ Ethiopia?
- Rich is still ________ vacation.
- My daughter’s birthday is ________ May.
Answers
- On
- To
- In
- At
- In
- For
- With
- From
- On
- In
Exercise 2
Complete the sentences with the most appropriate prepositions.
- It was stupid …………………her to go out without a coat.
- Everyone was pleased ………………….the marks they scored.
- I am bored ………………..singing every morning.
- Are you interested ………………..sports?
- Kenya is famous ……………… her athletes.
- I will be happy to see married ……………. Gregory.
- The town is crowded with people.
- You will be held responsible …………………anything that happens.
- She is sorry ……………….. her behavior last night.
- You should be sorry …………………..missing the lesson.
- Jemimah is fond …………………. dogs.
- I am keen ………….. leave this school.
- What are you excited ……………..?
- It seems she is upset ………………something.
- You shouldn’t be worried …………………anything as long as I am around.
Answers
- Of
- With
- With
- In
- For
- To
- With
- For
- About
- For
- Of
- On
- About
- About
- About
CONJUNCTIONS
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
- A coordinating conjunction connects words, phrases, and clauses.
- And, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet are the known coordinating conjunctions.
Examples in Sentences
- This is a beautiful girl, but a difficult one to convince.
- It was cold, so I put on my jacket.
- This tea is thick and sweet.
- Do you like white rice, or brown rice?
Functions of Coordinating Conjunctions
Conjunction | Function
|
Example in a Sentence |
And | Joins two similar ideas | Jane and Mary are in form one. |
But | Joins two contrasting ideas | He drives slowly, but sure. |
Or | Joins two alternative ideas | We can go to Naivasha, or stay here and watch news. |
So | Shows the second idea is the result of the first | I was sick, so I did not go to school. |
Nor | Joins two negative alternatives. | He doesn’t wake up early, nor do I. |
For | Give a reason | I was punished, for I was late. |
Yet | Joins two contrasting ideas (means “but”) | I was punished, yet I arrived early. |
Exercise
Join each pair of sentences with an appropriate coordinating conjunction.
- I love to travel. I hate travelling by bus.
- You should go to bed now. You will be tired tomorrow.
- The bus stopped. Two passengers got out of it.
- Helen was angry with Jane. Helen went out to cool down.
- I arrived at school late. I left home early.
Answers
- I love to travel but I hate travelling by bus.
- You should go to bed now, or you will be tired tomorrow.
- The bus stopped and two passengers got out of it.
- Helen was angry with Jane, so she went out to cool down.
- I arrived at school late, yet I left home early.
PHRASES
- A phrase is a group of words without a subject and a verb and which does not make sense on its own.
- There are various types of phrases. They include:
- Noun phrases
- Verb phrases
- Adjective phrases
- Adverb phrases
- Prepositional phrases
- At your level, we will only study noun phrases.
NOUN PHRASES
- A noun phrase is a group of words that plays role of a noun and has a noun has the head word (main word).
- Look at the example below.
- I saw Bingo. The word in bold is a noun
- I saw your dog. In boldface, is the noun phrase that has replaced the noun in above sentence.
Examples of Noun Phrases
The new car
My old shirt
The best car safety device
Constituents of a Noun Phrase
- A noun phrase consists of:
- A determiner, which can be an article, a number, or an adjective.
- Modifiers, which can be an adjective, or combinations of adjectives.
- Modifiers can either be premodifier if it comes before the main noun, or post modifier if it follows the noun.
- Determiners precede modifiers.
- Study the noun phrases.
Phrase | Determiner | Pre modifier | Main noun | Post Modifier |
The tall woman
The longest river Your sister Any big supermarket nearby
|
The
The Your Any |
Tall
Longest
Big
|
Woman
River Sister Supermarket |
Nearby
|
Exercise
Underline the noun phrase in each of the sentences below.
- Did you see the tall man?
- He called all the stubborn students.
- He wishes to see the president.
- He bought her a beautiful white blouse.
- An horse prefers living in dark stables.
- It is disgraceful to write such rubbish.
- The people’s president is in Mombasa.
- The girl in blue skirt is my sister.
- The soldiers are true heroes.
- My best friend is Teris.
SIMPLE SENTENCES
A simple sentence has one clause —independent
- SENTENCE STRUCTURE (SUBJECT, PREDICATE)
- A simple sentence has the formula:
Subject + Predicate
- Look at the example below.
This desk is mine.
- This desk – Subject
- Is mine – the predicate
- A subject is the one doing the action.
- Predicate is the part of the sentence which talks about the subject and which has a verb.
- The predicate must contain a verb. The other constituents of a predicate can be an adverb, adjective, pronoun, etc.
- Can you identify the subject and predicate in each of the sentences below?
- She came to see me.
- Njoroge was here.
- I saw them dancing.
- This is the cheapest dress in town.
- You are a big fool.
- TYPES OF SENTENCES
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
- An interrogative sentence is used to ask questions.
- There are various question types:
- Yes/no questions
- Alternative questions
- Tag questions
- w/h questions
Yes/No Questions
- They are answered with yes or no as answers.
- Examples are:
- Did you score everything?
- Have you seen it?
Alternative Questions
- There are options two to be chosen from.
- Examples are:
- Would you like to take tea, or coffee?
- Do you want a red pen, or blue one?
Tag Questions
- There is the statement part, which is followed by a comma, and then the question part.
- Examples are:
- She is the thief, isn’t she?
- It does not smell good, does it?
W/H Questions
- The first word start with the two letters “w and h”.
- Those words used for asking these questions are: who, where, which, how, why, what
- Examples
- Who sent you?
- Where do you live?
Exercise
Form three different question types from the sentence:
You stole my cap.
Answer
- Did you steal my red cap? Yes/no
- Who stole my red cap? w/h
- You stole me red cap, didn’t you?
IMPERATIVE SENTENCES
- An imperative sentence issues a request or a direct command.
- Usually, imperative sentences begin with verbs.
- Depending on the strength of the emotion, and the forcefulness of the command, it can end in either a full stop (.) or an exclamation mark (!).
Examples
- Complete your assignment by afternoon!
- Kindly open the door.
- Turn left at the cross road.
End Punctuation Marks with Imperative Sentences
- If the command is forceful, use an exclamation mark (!). for example,
Leave now!
Open the door!
- If the command is polite, or in the form of advice, put a period (.). examples,
Please get me my book.
Leave the door open.
EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES
- An exclamatory sentence expresses emotion.
- The emotion can be of love, happiness, confusion, anger, etc.
- Usually ends with an exclamation mark.
- Use the word “what” or “how”before a noun.
Examples
- What a day!
- What awful plastic!
- What funny people they are!
- What a match!
Exercise
Rewrite each sentence beginning with the word “what” or “how”.
- He is a foolish man.
- This is a pleasant day.
- That is clever of you.
- They are lovely flowers.
- He came early
Answers
- What a foolish man!
- What a pleasant day
- How clever of you!
- What lovely flowers!
- How early he came!
AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES
There are two types:
- Declarative
- Negative
DECLARATIVE SENTENCES/
- Used to make statements.
- End with a full stop or period (.).
- Here are examples of declarative sentences.
- My name is George.
- He brings me chocolate.
- She visited last year.
- I will leave in the evening.
NEGATIVE SENTENCES
- A negative sentence states that something is untrue.
- A negative adverb is added to negate the validity of the sentence.
- A negative statement is formed by adding the word “not” to the first auxiliary verb. Examples
- I did not abuse you.
- This novel does not have a good ending.
- You are not among the lucky ones.
- Dan did not steal from me, it was you.
Exercise
Negate the following sentences.
- She has a bag.
- I am sick.
- He sells flowers.
- They work there.
- She writes good compositions.
- It is interesting.
Answers
- She does not have a bag.
- I am not sick.
- He doesn’t sell flowers.
- They don’t work there.
- She doesn’t write good compositions.
- It is not interesting.
ANSWERS
PARTS OF SPEECH
NOUNS
COMMON NOUNS
- The students were taught
- I have visited a continent.
- She lives in the city.
- We eat in the hotel.
- Have you ever swum in the river?
- I drive a car.
- Everyone went shopping at the supermarket.
- A soldier is dead.
- I come from a country.
- I teach at a school.
PROPER NOUNS
- I will take you to Rich’s Palace.
- Sarah is the girl I told you about.
- Of all the continents, I like Africa the most.
- Gracy is the cutest kitten ever.
- I am craving Oreos.
- I used Tilly in cooking.
- Jupiter is one of the planets.
- Margaret was a great author.
CONCRETE NOUNS ABSTRACT NOUNS
Exercise 1
- A man must always have the courage to face every challenge.
Man – concrete
Courage – abstract
- No matter what happens, we must not lose hope.
Hope – abstract
- My faith in God is very strong.
Faith – abstract
God – concrete
- A person should buy a beautiful dress.
Person, dress – concrete
- Have you seen the black dog?
Dog – concrete
- Love is blind.
Love – abstract
Blind – concrete
Exercise 2
- Advice
- Education
- Intelligence
- Importance
- Happiness
- Confidence
- Pride
- Anger
- Imagination
- Loneliness
NUMBER
ARTICLES
- An
- A
- The
- No article
- A
- The
- The
- No article
- An
- An
PRONOUNS
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Exercise 1
- I
- It
- Him
- Me
- Her
Exercise 2
- The old gate doesn’t look good.
It doesn’t look good.
- Tom and Mary went to school.
They went to school.
- The dog bit the doctor and the chief.
It bit them.
- Moses runs faster than Rebecca.
He runs faster than Rebecca.
- Phiona and Ruth played doubles.
They played doubles.
- Christine is clever.
She is clever.
- I brought the dress.
I brought it.
- Antony drove Junet and me.
Anthony drove us.
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
- Her
- Your
- Mine
- Theirs
- Yours
- Her
- Their
- Our
- His
- Your
- Its
- His
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
- Ourselves
- Themselves
- Yourself
- Itself
- Myself, myself
- Itself
- Himself
- Yourselves
- Themselves
- Herself
PHRASES
NOUN PHRASES
- Did you see the tall man?
- He called all the stubborn students.
- He wishes to see the president.
- He bought her a beautiful white blouse.
- An horse prefers living in dark stables.
- It is disgraceful to write such rubbish.
- The people’s president is in Mombasa.
- The girl in blue skirt is my sister.
- The soldiers are true heroes.
- My best friend is Teris.
WRITING FOR FORM 1
SPELLING
SPELLING RULES
The following rules will help you spell words correctly.
Rule 1: “I before E except after C”;
- achieve, believe, bier, brief, hygiene, grief, thief, friend, grieve, chief, fiend, patience, pierce, priest
- ceiling, conceive, deceive, perceive, receipt, receive, deceit, conceit
Exceptions
neighbor, freight, beige, sleigh, weight, vein, and weigh and there are many exceptions to the rule: either, neither, feint, foreign, forfeit, height, leisure, weird, seize, and seizure.
Rule 2: “Dropping Final E”
When adding an ending to a word that ends with a silent e, drop the final e if the ending begins with a vowel:
- advancing
- surprising
However, if the ending begins with a consonant, keep the final e:
- advancement
- likeness
(However, if the silent e is preceded by another vowel, drop the e when adding any ending: argument, argued, truly.)
Exceptions: to avoid confusion and mispronunciation, the final e is kept in words such as mileage and words where the final e is preceded by a soft g or c: changeable, courageous, manageable, management, noticeable. (The word management, for example, without that e after the g, would be pronounced with a hard g sound.)
Rule 3: “Dropping Final Y”
When adding an ending to a word that ends with y, change the y to i when it is preceded by a consonant.
- supply becomes supplies
- worry becomes worried
- merry becomes merrier
This does not apply to the ending -ing, however.
- crying
- studying
Nor does it apply when the final y is preceded by a vowel.
- obeyed
- saying
Rule 4: “Doubling Final Consonants”
When adding an ending to a word that ends in a consonant, we double that consonant in many situations. First, we have to determine the number of syllables in the word.
Double the final consonant before adding an ending that begins with a vowel when the last syllable of the word is accented and that syllable ends in a single vowel followed by a single consonant.
- submit is accented on the last syllable and the final consonant is preceded by a vowel, so we double the t before adding, for instance, an -ing or -ed: submitting, submitted.
- flap contains only one syllable which means that it is always accented. Again, the last consonant is preceded by a vowel, so we double it before adding, for instance, an -ing or -ed: flapping, flapped. This rule does not apply to verbs that end with “x,” “w,” “v,” and “y,” consonants that cannot be doubled (such as “box” [boxing] and “snow” [snowing]).
- open contains two syllables and the last syllable is preceded by a single vowel, but the accent falls on the first syllable, not the last syllable, so we don’t double the n before adding an ending: opening, opened.
- refer contains two syllables and the accent falls on the last syllable and a single vowel precedes the final consonant, so we will double the r before adding an ending, as in referring, referral. The same would apply to begin, as in beginner, beginning.
- relent contains two syllables, but the final consonant is preceded by another consonant, not a vowel, so we do not double the t before adding an ending: relented, relenting.
- deal looks like flap (above), but the syllable ends in a consonant preceded not by a single vowel, but by two vowels, so we do not double the final l as in dealer and dealing. The same would apply, then, to despair: despairing, despaired.
PUNCTUATION
CAPITALIZATION
Capitalization Rules
Capitalization is the writing of a word with its first letter in uppercase and the remaining letters in lowercase.
Capitalize the first word of a document and the first word after a final punctuation mark (full stop, question mark, exclamation mark).
Capitalize proper nouns—and adjectives derived from proper nouns.
Examples:
he is Brian’s father
In Juja
Capitalization Checklist
- Brand names
- Companies
- Days of the week and months of the year
- Holidays
- Institutions
the University of Nairobi - Natural and artificial landmarks
the Fourteen Fall, the Mount Kenya - Religions and names of deities
Note: Capitalize the Bible (but biblical). Do not capitalize heaven, hell, the devil, satanic. - Special occasions
the Olympic Games, the Cannes Film Festival - Streets and roads
Capitalize specific geographical regions. Do not capitalize points of the compass.
FINAL PUNCTUATION MARKS
The Period, Full Stop or Point
- The period (known as a full stop) is probably the simplest of the punctuation marks to use. You use it like a knife to cut the sentences to the required length.
- Generally, you can break up the sentences using the full stop at the end of a logical and complete thought that looks and sounds right to you.
Mark the end of a sentence which is not a question or an exclamation
Examples
- Kisumu is the third largest city in kenya.
- I am writing you soon.
Indicate an abbreviation
Examples
- I will arrive between 6 a.m. and 7 a.m.
- We are coming on Fri., Jan. 4.
Period after a single word
Sometimes a single word can form the sentence. In this case you place a fullstop after the word as you would in any other sentence. This is often the case when the subject is understood as in a greeting or a command.
Examples
- “come.”
- “Stop.”
Periods in numbers
Numbers use periods in English to separate the whole number from the decimal. A period used in a number is also called a “decimal point” and it is read “point” unless it refers to money.
Examples
- Sh. 10.50 is its price.
- Her weight is 60.60
The Exclamation Mark
The exclamation mark is used to express astonishment, or surprise, or to emphasise a comment or short, sharp phrase. In professional or everyday writing, exclamation marks are used sparingly if at all.
Examples
- Help! Help!
- That’s unbelievable!
- Get out!
- Look out!
You can also use exclamation marks to mark a phrase as humourous, ironic or sarcastic.
Examples
- What a lovely day! (when it obviously is not a lovely day)
- That was clever! (when someone has done something stupid)
The Question Mark
Use the question mark at the end of all direct questions.
Examples
- What is your name?
- Do you speak Italian?
- You’re spanish, aren’t you?
Do not use a question mark for reported questions
Examples
- He asked me what my name was.
- She asked if I was Spanish.
- Ask them where they are going.
The Comma
Use comma to separate phrases, words, or clauses in lists
Ø A series of independent clauses (sentences)
Example
I cried to her, she asked me to stop crying, and afterwards she took me out for lunch..
Ø A series of nouns
Examples
- Don’t forget to buy milk, ice cream, and fish.
- Gregory, David, and Christine arrived in time.
Ø A series of adjectives
A list of adjectives usually requires commas. However, if an adjective is modifying another adjective you do not separate them with a comma (sentence 3).
Examples
- She was young, beautiful, kind, and intelligent.
- The house we visited was dark, dreary, and run-down.
Ø A series of verbs
Examples
- Tony ran towards me, fell, yelled, and fainted.
- The boy leapt, spun, twisted, and dove into the water.
Ø A series of phrases
Examples
- The car smashed into the wall, flipped onto its roof, slid along the road, and finally stopped against a tree.
- The dog leapt into the air, snatched the Frisbee in its mouth, landed, and ran off into the forest.
More Uses
1. Enclosing details
Use a comma to enclose non-defining relative clauses and other non-essential details and comments. The comma is placed on either side of the insertion.
Examples
- China, one of the most powerful nations on Earth, has a huge population.
- Goats, unlike cows, do not like grass.
2. Participial phrases
Examples
- Hearing the sad news, Fred fainted.
- Walking home from school, I met my old friend.
3. Tag questions
Examples
- She hates you, doesn’t she?
- We have no business together, have we?
MAKING NOTES
How to Make Notes
The following tips will come in handy when making notes:
- Read the material carefully and thoroughly.
- Underline the key sentences as you read. This will help in forming the title.
- Make a rough note of the main points in a logical sequence.
- Write the final notes.
You should have in mind that a note:
- Should be short and to the point.
- Contain all the important and relevant information.
- Should have information systematically divided and subdivided.
- Should have a short title. Avoid long sentences as titles.
- Must be written in points only.
Notes Template
TITLE …………………….
- ………………………………………….
- …………………………………………
- ………………………………………..
- ………………………………………..
TAKING NOTES
How to Take Notes
- There is no one “right” way to take notes. Very different approaches can be equally effective, depending on the context.
- The key thing is to ensure that you remain actively engaged with the material whilst taking notes.
- If all you do is copy down what you hear or read, then you won’t actually be learning anything at all. You may not even understand your notes when you come back to review them later!
- Do the following:
- Be concise
- be as neat as possible
- use headings and numbered points
- use abbreviations/shorthand
- Leave spaces in between your notes in case of any additions.
- Avoid the following:
- copying out sentences or passages verbatim (i.e. word for word)
- copying a mass of factual information
- After the lesson, rewrite the notes in a more organized way adding details left out.
- CREATIVE WRITING
POEMS
Poem Writing Tips
There are a few things to think about before you start writing your poem. The following tips on writing poems will help you get started.
- Know your purpose. Know why you are writing a poem and what you want it to do.
- Pick a subject. Poems can be written about any topic under the sun.
- Avoid clichés. These are sayings that have been overused, like busy as a bee, or blind as a bat.
- Use imagery. Paint with your words and use concrete words that appeal to the senses. Abstract words cannot give the reader a good picture of what you are trying to say.
- Use similes and metaphors. Similes compare two things, like “you are sweet as honey” and usually use the word “like” or “as.” Metaphors state that one thing is another thing, like “you are a pig.” Things being compared in a metaphor have at least one thing in common but are very different in other ways.
- You can also consider using rhyme, alliteration, consonance, etc
IMAGINATIVE COMPOSITIONS
Elements of Imaginative Compositions
In order to write a good story, use these important elements:
- a) Characters: Refers to those who act in the story. They should be people, animals or objects that think and talk.
- b) Setting: Describes time and place of the story for example: classroom, lakeside, town etc.
- c) Plot: Refers to the series of actions that the characters go through as they try to solve a problem. In the plot, we have the:
- Introduction: This is usually short. It presents the character, the situation or the problem, and part of the setting.
- Development: This simply shows how the situation affects the characters and what they do to try and solve the problem.
- Conclusion: This shows the solution of a problem. It is usually short. It may lead to a happy, sad or surprise ending.
When writing a story, remember to organise the flow of your events so that the reader’s interest is maintained throughout the story. The element of suspense should also be created and maintained so that the reader will want to find out what is most likely to happen in your story.
You can create suspense by:
- Including mystery
- Changing the scene
- Creating unexpected events
- Including dialogue
- Giving surprise ending
- Moving from one character to another
- PERSONAL WRITING
- Diaries
- A diary is a written record of things that happen each day.
- It is also a record of things you plan to do per day and the time you plan to do so.
- A diary is also the book in which you write down things that happen to you on daily basis.
Diaries to Record what is planned to be done
- Here, we record things we plan to do.
- Let us look at the sample below:
MY DIARY
|
Diaries for Recording the Daily Observation
MY DIARY
Calendar
ENTRY Dear Diary,
Today, I started writing my first poem. I thought of what to write and by lunch time, an idea crossed my mind. I decided to write about corruption. I entitled it “Another Bond – Eurobond”. I had a lot to write about it. As I write now, my dear, I have completed writing it. Hopefully, I will write another one before the week ends. I will inform you about it once that is done. Bye |
- ADDRESSES
- An address is a superscription of a letter directing who the letter is meant to reach.
- The writer also writes their address in the letter to allow for the reply.
- An address is written on an envelop, letter, or package.
Addresses in Letters
- Address format vary according to the type of letter written.
- Even though they are written differently, there are common features such as:
- The post office box number
- The postcode
- The street, road, or building where the post office is located
- The city or town
- The country
- There are two formats of writing addresses:
- Block format; and
- Indented format
Block Format
- Address written in a block.
- Paragraphs also blocked.
- An example is
KILIMAMBOGO FOOD AND BEVERAGE,
P.O. BOX 555-35400, KILIMAMBOGO – KENYA. |
Indented Format
- Written on a slant.
- The paragraphs in the letter are also indented.
- An example is:
KILIMAMBOGO FOOD AND BEVERAGES,
P.O. BOX 555-35400, KILIMAMBOGO – KENYA. |
Exercise
Write each of the addresses below as they would appear on your envelope:
- Migori Polytechnic-40400- P.O. Box 654- The Principal-Kenya- Migori
- Kenya Labour-The Director-30210- P.O. Box 90100- Kenya- Nairobi
- PACKING LISTS
- At times you find yourself forgetting something when packing for a trip.
- It is important to get organized. Writing a packing list will be key in ensuring no item intended to be carried during a trip is forgotten.
- A packing list is therefore a checklist for what to bring along with them.
- To make the most out of your trip you have to pack the right items.
- What you pack will highly depend on factors such as:
- The place you are visiting. If for example, you are visiting a place where it is hot, there will be no need of carrying heavy clothes.
- Means of transport. There is a limit to what one should carry depending on the weight.
- Number of days.
- The reason for visiting. For example if going on a camp, you need carry camping gear.
How to Start
- Get a piece of paper and a pen and write “PACKING LIST”. This forms part of the title. The other part is the place to visit.
- Write number of days. It is advisable to do this as it will help you tell how many clothes you will need. It might not sound good to carry only two underpants, for example, if the trip will last a week.
- Draw a table with columns containing item category, item, quantity, and description. The various item categories are:
- Entertainment list, for example, CDs, Radio, etc.
- Clothing List, for example, underpants, skirts, etc.
- Camping Gear, for example, sleeping bag,
- Toiletries, for example, toothpaste, soap, etc.
- In that table fill all the items and all its columns appropriately.
Sample Packing List
TRIP TO MACHAKOS PACKING LIST
DAYS: 3 Days
|
Exercise
You are Manchester City Football club Player. During one of the summer holidays, your club go for a 5 day camp to a very hot place in United Arab Emirates. Here, no beddings are provided. Write a packing list of all the items you would carry with you to this trip.
- SOCIAL WRITING
Informal Letters
- Usually written to people known to people you know fairly well. These can be friends and relatives.
- Also referred to as friendly letters.
- They are meant to:
- Give news;
- Request information;
- Congratulate people;
- Ask questions; or
- Give advice.
How to Write Informal Letters
- An informal letter has such elements as:
- Sender’s address. Write your address here. Example,
MAALIK AHMED
P.O. BOX 6454-90800
KITALE
- Date when the letter is written.
- Example,
Dear Timothy,
- Write the body of the text. Include greetings, news, other questions, etc.
- Sign of with your name. example,
See you soon,
Denis
- The table that follows is of a format of an informal letter blended with explanations:
The Format | Explanation |
Address | At the top right hand corner, write your address. For example,
Keicy Kimito P.O. Box 567 RONGO |
Date | Below the writer’s address, is the date. For example,
13th December, 2015 |
Salutation | Written on the left hand side of the letter. Start with:
· Dear ………. , e.g. Dear Drinkwater, · Dearest………, or My Dear……., ( for close friends and relatives) Example, Dearest Drinkwater, Or My Dear Drinkwater, |
Opening Paragraph | You may ask about the recipient’s health. For example,
· How is your family? · How are you Njuguna? I hope that you and your family are in the pink. · I am fine and I hope you are as fit as a fiddle. |
Content Paragraphs | This is where:
· You mention your main reason for writing (paragraph 2) · Give the news · Ask questions You can start with: · I am writing this letter to…
|
Closing Paragraph | It is proper to inform your recipient that you are ending the letter. Some phrases you can use are:
· Do write me soon. · Please convey my warm regards to… · Allow me to pen off here. · Hope to receive a reply from you. · Bye/ Goodbye |
Closing | Sign off with your name. you can sign off using:
· Your loving friend, · Yours lovingly, · Yours affectionately, · Your nephew, · Yours sincerely, · Keep in touch, Your name should follow. Your first name is preferred. |
The Language of Informal Letters
- The language used is simple as well as friendly.
- You can use contractions such as I’m, won’t, you’re, etc.
Sample Friendly Letter
Brigit Annabel
P.O BOX 454—40400 SUNA- MIGORI
5TH September, 2015
Dear James,
Hi James! Hope you are fine back there in Rongo. My sister and I are very much fine.
I’m just writing to let you know I quit my old job and found something new in Migori town.
I was really fed up with working at Banana Academy as there was little work enough to challenge me anymore. You know me; if there is no enough, I get bored too easily and have to find something new.
I’m now teaching at Sunsun in Migori and the kind of work I do suits me to the ground. I teach two candidate classes. The work here is not only challenging, but it is rewarding as well. I know you will find it hard to believe… but you just have to.
That is not all for now! I’m getting married in a couple of weeks. He is working in the neighbouring school. So many promises I hope he will fulfill he has not stopped to give. I also find him the best among the many. When the time comes I believe you will come and celebrate with us.
Keep in touch, Brigit |
Exercise
You have recently joined another school. Write a letter to your friend. In your letter
- Explain why you changed school
- Describe your new school
- Tell him/her your other news
- INSTITUTIONAL WRITING
- PUBLIC NOTICES
- A public notice is a notice given to provide information for the public that is widespread in a wide geographical area via media.
- They are mostly placed in newspapers by businesses, county and national government, and individuals.
- They include:
- Unclaimed property
- Wanted person
- Dangerous person
- Government contracts
- Aunction
- Foreclosures, etc.
Public Notice Format
- The parts of a public notice include among others:
- Name of the organization/institution. Letterhead is preferred.
- Then write/type “PUBLIC NOTICE”.
- The topic/theme/subject. Let the public know what you want to inform them about.
- Date, time, and venue(if need be).
- Picture to reinforce the message.
- Name of the writer of the notice and the job position(and signature, for the more formal ones)
Sample Public Notice
MAJI MACHAFU LANDS DEALERS COMPANY
(P.O. Box 123-00200 Nanyuki, Email: [email protected], Mobile: 0715234343) PUBLIC NOTICE Notice is hearby given that son of Amos Kinyanjui resident of Plot(5) located opposite Kadika Plaza, Kilgoris Estate has agreed to sell the plot mentioned in the schedule hereto dated 5th June, 2015. All persons claiming interest in the land or any part thereof by any way are hearby required to bring their complaints at our Mukomi office within 10 days from the date hearof, failing which the sale will be completed.
Yours Sincerely [sign] Fredrick Wainaina SALES MANAGER |
- In the notice above, a picture of the plot can be included.
- INVENTORIES
- An inventory is a complete list of items such as equipment,property, goods in stock, or even the contents of a particular place.
- A list of things possessed by a person or company.
- It is a good idea to keep the records of items owned by a person or company.
- An inventory will have the following basic elements:
- Name of the institution. Name of the person, if individually possessed.
- Date when the records are taken.
- Item number
- Item category
- Item
- Quantity of items
- Description of the item
- Approximate value of the item
- The name and designation of the person keeping the records.
- Here is a sample inventory.
KILIMANJARO MIXED DAY AND BOARDING HIGH SCHOOL
INVENTORY OF THE EQUIPMENT AS AT 24TH MARCH, 2016
RECORDS KEPT BY: Jeniffer Kwamboka sign School Store Keeper |
Exercise
You are St. Monica’s Mission Hospital Resource Manager. At this hospital, records of items in it are kept at the end of every August. Write the inventory of all the items here.